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Participants of the 2017 European Space Weather Week in Ostend, Belgium, discussed the stakeholder requirements for space weather-related models. It was emphasized that stakeholders show an increased interest in space weather-related models. Participants of the meeting discussed particular prediction indicators that can provide first-order estimates of the impact of space weather on engineering systems.
HESS J1640-465 - an exceptionally luminous TeV gamma-ray supernova remnant (vol 439, pg 2828, 2014)
(2014)
Nowadays, structural health monitoring of critical infrastructures is considered as of primal importance especially for managing transport infrastructure however most current SHM methodologies are based on point-sensors that show various limitations relating to their spatial positioning capabilities, cost of development and measurement range. This publication describes the progress in the SENSKIN EC co-funded research project that is developing a dielectric-elastomer sensor, formed from a large highly extensible capacitance sensing membrane and is supported by an advanced micro-electronic circuitry, for monitoring transport infrastructure bridges. The sensor under development provides spatial measurements of strain in excess of 10%, while the sensing system is being designed to be easy to install, require low power in operation concepts, require simple signal processing, and have the ability to self-monitor and report. An appropriate wireless sensor network is also being designed and developed supported by local gateways for the required data collection and exploitation. SENSKIN also develops a Decision-Support-System (DSS) for proactive condition-based structural interventions under normal operating conditions and reactive emergency intervention following an extreme event. The latter is supported by a life-cycle-costing (LCC) and life-cycle-assessment (LCA) module responsible for the total internal and external costs for the identified bridge rehabilitation, analysis of options, yielding figures for the assessment of the economic implications of the bridge rehabilitation work and the environmental impacts of the bridge rehabilitation options and of the associated secondary effects respectively. The overall monitoring system will be evaluated and benchmarked on actual bridges of Egnatia Highway (Greece) and Bosporus Bridge (Turkey).
The present work is part of a collaborative H2020 European funded research project called SENSKIN, that aims to improve Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) for transport infrastructure through the development of an innovative monitoring and management system for bridges based on a novel, inexpensive, skin-like sensor. The integrated SENSKIN technology will be implemented in the case of steel and concrete bridges, and tested, field-evaluated and benchmarked on actual bridge environment against a conventional health monitoring solution developed by Mistras Group Hellas. The main objective of the present work is to implement the autonomous, fully functional strain monitoring system based on commercially available off-the-shelf components, that will be used to accomplish direct comparison between the performance of the innovative SENSKIN sensors and the conventional strain sensors commonly used for structural monitoring of bridges. For this purpose, the mini Structural Monitoring System (mini SMS) of Physical Acoustics Corporation, a comprehensive data acquisition unit designed specifically for long-term unattended operation in outdoor environments, was selected. For the completion of the conventional system, appropriate foil-type strain sensors were selected, driven by special conditioners manufactured by Mistras Group. A comprehensive description of the strain monitoring system and its peripheral components is provided in this paper. For the evaluation of the integrated system’s performance and the effect of various parameters on the long-term behavior of sensors, several test steel pieces instrumented with different strain sensors configurations were prepared and tested in both laboratory and field ambient conditions. Furthermore, loading tests were performed aiming to validate the response of the system in monitoring the strains developed in steel beam elements subject to bending regimes. Representative results obtained from the above experimental tests have been included in this paper as well.
In an effort to explain the formation of a narrow third radiation belt at ultra-relativistic energies detected during a solar storm in September 20121, Mann et al.2 present simulations from which they conclude it arises from a process of outward radial diffusion alone, without the need for additional loss processes from higher frequency waves. The comparison of observations with the model in Figs 2 and 3 of their Article clearly shows that even with strong radial diffusion rates, the model predicts a third belt near L* = 3 that is twice as wide as observed and approximately an order of magnitude more intense. We therefore disagree with their interpretation that “the agreement between the absolute fluxes from the model and those observed by REPT [the Relativistic Electron Proton Telescope] shown on Figs 2 and 3 is excellent.”
Previous studies3 have shown that outward radial diffusion plays a very important role in the dynamics of the outer belt and is capable of explaining rapid reductions in the electron flux. It has also been shown that it can produce remnant belts (Fig. 2 of a long-term simulation study4). However, radial diffusion alone cannot explain the formation of the narrow third belt at multi-MeV during September 2012. An additional loss mechanism is required.
Higher radial diffusion rates cannot improve the comparison of model presented by Mann et al. with observations. A further increase in the radial diffusion rates (reported in Fig. 4 of the Supplementary Information of ref. 2) results in the overestimation of the outer belt fluxes by up to three orders of magnitude at energy of 3.4 MeV.
Observations at 2 MeV, where belts show only a two-zone structure, were not presented by Mann et al. Moreover, simulations of electrons with energies below 2 MeV with the same diffusion rates and boundary conditions used by the authors would probably produce very strong depletions down to L = 3–3.5, where L is radial distance from the centre of the Earth to the given field line in the equatorial plane. Observations do not show a non-adiabatic loss below L ∼ 4.5 for 2 MeV. Such different dynamics between 2 MeV and above 4 MeV at around L = 3.5 are another indication that particles are scattered by electromagnetic ion cyclotron (EMIC) waves that affect only energies above a certain threshold.
Observations of the phase space density (PSD) provide additional evidence for the local loss of electrons. Around L* = 3.5–4 PSD shows significant decrease by an order of magnitude starting in the afternoon of 3 September (Fig. 1a), while PSD above L* = 4 is increasing. The minimum in PSD between L* = 3.5–4 continues to decrease until 4 September. This evolution demonstrates that the loss is not produced by outward diffusion. Radial diffusion cannot produce deepening minima, as it works to smooth gradients. Just as growing peaks in PSD show the presence of localized acceleration5, deepening minima show the presence of localized loss.
Figure 1: Time evolution of radiation profiles in electron PSD at relativistic and ultra-relativistic energies.
figure 1
a, Similar to Supplementary Fig. 3 of ref. 2, but using TS07D model10 and for μ = 2,500 MeV G−1, K = 0.05 RE G0.5 (where RE is the radius of the Earth). b, Similar to Supplementary Fig. 3 of ref. 2, but using TS07D model and for μ = 700 MeV G−1, corresponding to MeV energies in the heart of the belt. Minimum in PSD in the heart of the multi-MeV electron radiation belt between 3.5 and 4 RE deepening between the afternoon of 3 September and 5 September clearly show that the narrow remnant belt at multi-MeV below 3.5 RE is produced by the local loss.
Full size image
The minimum in the outer boundary is reached on the evening of 2 September. After that, the outer boundary moves up, while the minimum decreases by approximately an order of magnitude, clearly showing that this main decrease cannot be explained by outward diffusion, and requires additional loss processes. The analysis of profiles of PSD is a standard tool used, for example, in the study about electron acceleration5 and routinely used by the entire Van Allen Probes team. In the Supplementary Information, we show that this analysis is validated by using different magnetic field models. The Supplementary Information also shows that measurements are above background noise.
Deepening minima at multi-MeV during the times when the boundary flux increases are clearly seen in Fig. 1a. They show that there must be localized loss, as radial diffusion cannot produce a minimum that becomes lower with time. At lower energies of 1–2 MeV, which corresponds to lower values of the first adiabatic invariant μ (Fig. 1b), the profiles are monotonic between L* = 3–3.5, consistent with the absence of scattering by EMIC waves that affect only electrons above a certain energy threshold6,7,8,9.
In summary, the results of the modelling and observations presented by Mann et al. do not lend support to the claim of explaining the dynamics of the ultra-relativistic third Van Allen radiation belt in terms of an outward radial diffusion process alone. While the outward radial diffusion driven by the loss to the magnetopause2 is certainly operating during this storm, there is compelling observational and modelling2,6 evidence that shows that very efficient localized electron loss operates during this storm at multi-MeV energies, consistent with localized loss produced by EMIC waves.