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Institute
- Institut für Geowissenschaften (442)
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Lamprophyre sind porphyrische, aus Mantelschmelzen gebildete Gesteine, die meist in Form von Gängen auftreten. Sie zeichnen sich durch auffällige und charakteristische texturelle, chemische und mineralogische Eigenschaften aus. Als ehemalige Mantelschmelzen liefern sie Information sowohl über Bedingungen der Schmelzbildung im Mantel als auch über geodynamische Prozesse, die zu metasomatischer Veränderung des Mantels geführt haben. Im Saxothuringikum Mitteleuropas, am Nordrand des Böhmischen Massivs, gibt es zahlreiche Lamprophyrvorkommen, die hier zur Charakterisierung der Mantelentwicklung während der variszischen Orogenese dienen. Die vorliegende Arbeit befaßt sich mit den mineralogischen, geochemischen und isotopischen (Sr-Nd-Pb) Signaturen von spätvariszischen kalkalkalischen Lamprophyren, von postvariszischen ultramafischen Lamprophyren, von Alkalibasalten der Lausitz und, zum Vergleich, von prävariszischen Gabbros. Darüberhinaus nutzt die Arbeit Lithium-Isotopensignaturen kombiniert mit Sr-Nd-Pb–Isotopendaten spätvariszischer kalkalkalischer Lamprophyre aus drei variszischen Domänen (Erzgebirge, Lausitz, Sudeten) zur Erkundung der lokalen Mantelüberprägungen während der variszischen Orogenese.
Assimilation of pseudo-tree-ring-width observations into an atmospheric general circulation model
(2017)
Paleoclimate data assimilation (DA) is a promising technique to systematically combine the information from climate model simulations and proxy records. Here, we investigate the assimilation of tree-ring-width (TRW) chronologies into an atmospheric global climate model using ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) techniques and a process-based tree-growth forward model as an observation operator. Our results, within a perfect-model experiment setting, indicate that the "online DA" approach did not outperform the "off-line" one, despite its considerable additional implementation complexity. On the other hand, it was observed that the nonlinear response of tree growth to surface temperature and soil moisture does deteriorate the operation of the time-averaged EnKF methodology. Moreover, for the first time we show that this skill loss appears significantly sensitive to the structure of the growth rate function, used to represent the principle of limiting factors (PLF) within the forward model. In general, our experiments showed that the error reduction achieved by assimilating pseudo-TRW chronologies is modulated by the magnitude of the yearly internal variability in themodel. This result might help the dendrochronology community to optimize their sampling efforts.
Towards the assimilation of tree-ring-width records using ensemble Kalman filtering techniques
(2015)
This paper investigates the applicability of the Vaganov–Shashkin–Lite (VSL) forward model for tree-ring-width chronologies as observation operator within a proxy data assimilation (DA) setting. Based on the principle of limiting factors, VSL combines temperature and moisture time series in a nonlinear fashion to obtain simulated TRW chronologies. When used as observation operator, this modelling approach implies three compounding, challenging features: (1) time averaging, (2) “switching recording” of 2 variables and (3) bounded response windows leading to “thresholded response”. We generate pseudo-TRW observations from a chaotic 2-scale dynamical system, used as a cartoon of the atmosphere-land system, and attempt to assimilate them via ensemble Kalman filtering techniques. Results within our simplified setting reveal that VSL’s nonlinearities may lead to considerable loss of assimilation skill, as compared to the utilization of a time-averaged (TA) linear observation operator. In order to understand this undesired effect, we embed VSL’s formulation into the framework of fuzzy logic (FL) theory, which thereby exposes multiple representations of the principle of limiting factors. DA experiments employing three alternative growth rate functions disclose a strong link between the lack of smoothness of the growth rate function and the loss of optimality in the estimate of the TA state. Accordingly, VSL’s performance as observation operator can be enhanced by resorting to smoother FL representations of the principle of limiting factors. This finding fosters new interpretations of tree-ring-growth limitation processes.
Metabolically active microbial communities are present in a wide range of subsurface environments. Techniques like enumeration of microbial cells, activity measurements with radiotracer assays and the analysis of porewater constituents are currently being used to explore the subsurface biosphere, alongside with molecular biological analyses. However, many of these techniques reach their detection limits due to low microbial activity and abundance. Direct measurements of microbial turnover not just face issues of insufficient sensitivity, they only provide information about a single specific process but in sediments many different process can occur simultaneously. Therefore, the development of a new technique to measure total microbial activity would be a major improvement. A new tritium-based hydrogenase-enzyme assay appeared to be a promising tool to quantify total living biomass, even in low activity subsurface environments. In this PhD project total microbial biomass and microbial activity was quantified in different subsurface sediments using established techniques (cell enumeration and pore water geochemistry) as well as a new tritium-based hydrogenase enzyme assay. By using a large database of our own cell enumeration data from equatorial Pacific and north Pacific sediments and published data it was shown that the global geographic distribution of subseafloor sedimentary microbes varies between sites by 5 to 6 orders of magnitude and correlates with the sedimentation rate and distance from land. Based on these correlations, global subseafloor biomass was estimated to be 4.1 petagram-C and ~0.6 % of Earth's total living biomass, which is significantly lower than previous estimates. Despite the massive reduction in biomass the subseafloor biosphere is still an important player in global biogeochemical cycles. To understand the relationship between microbial activity, abundance and organic matter flux into the sediment an expedition to the equatorial Pacific upwelling area and the north Pacific Gyre was carried out. Oxygen respiration rates in subseafloor sediments from the north Pacific Gyre, which are deposited at sedimentation rates of 1 mm per 1000 years, showed that microbial communities could survive for millions of years without fresh supply of organic carbon. Contrary to the north Pacific Gyre oxygen was completely depleted within the upper few millimeters to centimeters in sediments of the equatorial upwelling region due to a higher supply of organic matter and higher metabolic activity. So occurrence and variability of electron acceptors over depth and sites make the subsurface a complex environment for the quantification of total microbial activity. Recent studies showed that electron acceptor processes, which were previously thought to thermodynamically exclude each other can occur simultaneously. So in many cases a simple measure of the total microbial activity would be a better and more robust solution than assays for several specific processes, for example sulfate reduction rates or methanogenesis. Enzyme or molecular assays provide a more general approach as they target key metabolic compounds. Since hydrogenase enzymes are ubiquitous in microbes, the recently developed tritium-based hydrogenase radiotracer assay is applied to quantify hydrogenase enzyme activity as a parameter of total living cell activity. Hydrogenase enzyme activity was measured in sediments from different locations (Lake Van, Barents Sea, Equatorial Pacific and Gulf of Mexico). In sediment samples that contained nitrate, we found the lowest cell specific enzyme activity around 10^(-5) nmol H_(2) cell^(-1) d^(-1). With decreasing energy yield of the electron acceptor used, cell-specific hydrogenase activity increased and maximum values of up to 1 nmol H_(2) cell^(-1) d^(-1) were found in samples with methane concentrations of >10 ppm. Although hydrogenase activity cannot be converted directly into a turnover rate of a specific process, cell-specific activity factors can be used to identify specific metabolism and to quantify the metabolically active microbial population. In another study on sediments from the Nankai Trough microbial abundance and hydrogenase activity data show that both the habitat and the activity of subseafloor sedimentary microbial communities have been impacted by seismic activities. An increase in hydrogenase activity near the fault zone revealed that the microbial community was supplied with hydrogen as an energy source and that the microbes were specialized to hydrogen metabolism.
The climate is a complex dynamical system involving interactions and feedbacks among different processes at multiple temporal and spatial scales. Although numerous studies have attempted to understand the climate system, nonetheless, the studies investigating the multiscale characteristics of the climate are scarce. Further, the present set of techniques are limited in their ability to unravel the multi-scale variability of the climate system. It is completely plausible that extreme events and abrupt transitions, which are of great interest to climate community, are resultant of interactions among processes operating at multi-scale. For instance, storms, weather patterns, seasonal irregularities such as El Niño, floods and droughts, and decades-long climate variations can be better understood and even predicted by quantifying their multi-scale dynamics. This makes a strong argument to unravel the interaction and patterns of climatic processes at different scales. With this background, the thesis aims at developing measures to understand and quantify multi-scale interactions within the climate system.
In the first part of the thesis, I proposed two new methods, viz, multi-scale event synchronization (MSES) and wavelet multi-scale correlation (WMC) to capture the scale-specific features present in the climatic processes. The proposed methods were tested on various synthetic and real-world time series in order to check their applicability and replicability. The results indicate that both methods (WMC and MSES) are able to capture scale-specific associations that exist between processes at different time scales in a more detailed manner as compared to the traditional single scale counterparts.
In the second part of the thesis, the proposed multi-scale similarity measures were used in constructing climate networks to investigate the evolution of spatial connections within climatic processes at multiple timescales. The proposed methods WMC and MSES, together with complex network were applied to two different datasets.
In the first application, climate networks based on WMC were constructed for the univariate global sea surface temperature (SST) data to identify and visualize the SSTs patterns that develop very similarly over time and distinguish them from those that have long-range teleconnections to other ocean regions. Further investigations of climate networks on different timescales revealed (i) various high variability and co-variability regions, and (ii) short and long-range teleconnection regions with varying spatial distance. The outcomes of the study not only re-confirmed the existing knowledge on the link between SST patterns like El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, but also suggested new insights into the characteristics and origins of long-range teleconnections.
In the second application, I used the developed non-linear MSES similarity measure to quantify the multivariate teleconnections between extreme Indian precipitation and climatic patterns with the highest relevance for Indian sub-continent. The results confirmed significant non-linear influences that were not well captured by the traditional methods. Further, there was a substantial variation in the strength and nature of teleconnection across India, and across time scales.
Overall, the results from investigations conducted in the thesis strongly highlight the need for considering the multi-scale aspects in climatic processes, and the proposed methods provide robust framework for quantifying the multi-scale characteristics.
Im Graduiertenkolleg NatRiskChange der Universität Potsdam und anderen Forschungseinrichtungen werden beobachtete sowie zukünftig mögliche Veränderungen von Naturgefahren untersucht. Teil des strukturierten Doktorandenprogramms sind sogenannte Task-Force-Einsätze, bei denen die Promovierende zeitlich begrenzt ein aktuelles Ereignis auswerten. Im Zuge dieser Aktivität wurde die Sturzflut vom 29.05.2016 in Braunsbach (Baden-Württemberg) untersucht.
In diesem Bericht werden erste Auswertungen zur Einordnung der Niederschläge, zu den hydrologischen und geomorphologischen Prozessen im Einzugsgebiet des Orlacher Bachs sowie zu den verursachten Schäden beleuchtet.
Die Region war Zentrum extremer Regenfälle in der Größenordnung von 100 mm innerhalb von 2 Stunden. Das 6 km² kleine Einzugsgebiet hat eine sehr schnelle Reaktionszeit, zumal bei vorgesättigtem Boden. Im steilen Bachtal haben mehrere kleinere und größere Hangrutschungen über 8000 m³ Geröll, Schutt und Schwemmholz in das Gewässer eingetragen und möglicherweise kurzzeitige Aufstauungen und Durchbrüche verursacht. Neben den großen Wassermengen mit einer Abflussspitze in einer Größenordnung von 100 m³/s hat gerade die Geschiebefracht zu großen Schäden an den Gebäuden entlang des Bachlaufs in Braunsbach geführt.
The temporal dynamics of climate processes are spread across different timescales and, as such, the study of these processes at only one selected timescale might not reveal the complete mechanisms and interactions within and between the (sub-) processes. To capture the non-linear interactions between climatic events, the method of event synchronization has found increasing attention recently. The main drawback with the present estimation of event synchronization is its restriction to analysing the time series at one reference timescale only. The study of event synchronization at multiple scales would be of great interest to comprehend the dynamics of the investigated climate processes. In this paper, the wavelet-based multi-scale event synchronization (MSES) method is proposed by combining the wavelet transform and event synchronization. Wavelets are used extensively to comprehend multi-scale processes and the dynamics of processes across various timescales. The proposed method allows the study of spatio-temporal patterns across different timescales. The method is tested on synthetic and real-world time series in order to check its replicability and applicability. The results indicate that MSES is able to capture relationships that exist between processes at different timescales.
Hydrometric networks play a vital role in providing information for decision-making in water resource management. They should be set up optimally to provide as much information as possible that is as accurate as possible and, at the same time, be cost-effective. Although the design of hydrometric networks is a well-identified problem in hydrometeorology and has received considerable attention, there is still scope for further advancement. In this study, we use complex network analysis, defined as a collection of nodes interconnected by links, to propose a new measure that identifies critical nodes of station networks. The approach can support the design and redesign of hydrometric station networks. The science of complex networks is a relatively young field and has gained significant momentum over the last few years in different areas such as brain networks, social networks, technological networks, or climate networks. The identification of influential nodes in complex networks is an important field of research. We propose a new node-ranking measure – the weighted degree–betweenness (WDB) measure – to evaluate the importance of nodes in a network. It is compared to previously proposed measures used on synthetic sample networks and then applied to a real-world rain gauge network comprising 1229 stations across Germany to demonstrate its applicability. The proposed measure is evaluated using the decline rate of the network efficiency and the kriging error. The results suggest that WDB effectively quantifies the importance of rain gauges, although the benefits of the method need to be investigated in more detail.
In the last decade, the number and dimensions of catastrophic flooding events in the Niger River Basin (NRB) have markedly increased. Despite the devastating impact of the floods on the population and the mainly agriculturally based economy of the riverine nations, awareness of the hazards in policy and science is still low. The urgency of this topic and the existing research deficits are the motivation for the present dissertation.
The thesis is an initial detailed assessment of the increasing flood risk in the NRB. The research strategy is based on four questions regarding (1) features of the change in flood risk, (2) reasons for the change in the flood regime, (3) expected changes of the flood regime given climate and land use changes, and (4) recommendations from previous analysis for reducing the flood risk in the NRB.
The question examining the features of change in the flood regime is answered by means of statistical analysis. Trend, correlation, changepoint, and variance analyses show that, in addition to the factors exposure and vulnerability, the hazard itself has also increased significantly in the NRB, in accordance with the decadal climate pattern of West Africa. The northern arid and semi-arid parts of the NRB are those most affected by the changes.
As potential reasons for the increase in flood magnitudes, climate and land use changes are attributed by means of a hypothesis-testing framework. Two different approaches, based on either data analysis or simulation, lead to similar results, showing that the influence of climatic changes is generally larger compared to that of land use changes. Only in the dry areas of the NRB is the influence of land use changes comparable to that of climatic alterations.
Future changes of the flood regime are evaluated using modelling results. First ensembles of statistically and dynamically downscaled climate models based on different emission scenarios are analyzed. The models agree with a distinct increase in temperature. The precipitation signal, however, is not coherent. The climate scenarios are used to drive an eco-hydrological model. The influence of climatic changes on the flood regime is uncertain due to the unclear precipitation signal. Still, in general, higher flood peaks are expected. In a next step, effects of land use changes are integrated into the model. Different scenarios show that regreening might help to reduce flood peaks. In contrast, an expansion of agriculture might enhance the flood peaks in the NRB. Similarly to the analysis of observed changes in the flood regime, the impacts of climate- and land use changes for the future scenarios are also most severe in the dry areas of the NRB.
In order to answer the final research question, the results of the above analysis are integrated into a range of recommendations for science and policy on how to reduce flood risk in the NRB. The main recommendations include a stronger consideration of the enormous natural climate variability in the NRB and a focus on so called “no-regret” adaptation strategies which account for high uncertainty, as well as a stronger consideration of regional differences. Regarding the prevention and mitigation of catastrophic flooding, the most vulnerable and sensitive areas in the basin, the arid and semi-arid Sahelian and Sudano-Sahelian regions, should be prioritized. Eventually, an active, science-based and science-guided flood policy is recommended. The enormous population growth in the NRB in connection with the expected deterioration of environmental and climatic conditions is likely to enhance the region´s vulnerability to flooding. A smart and sustainable flood policy can help mitigate these negative impacts of flooding on the development of riverine societies in West Africa.
Climate or land use?
(2017)
This study intends to contribute to the ongoing discussion on whether land use and land cover changes (LULC) or climate trends have the major influence on the observed increase of flood magnitudes in the Sahel. A simulation-based approach is used for attributing the observed trends to the postulated drivers. For this purpose, the ecohydrological model SWIM (Soil and Water Integrated Model) with a new, dynamic LULC module was set up for the Sahelian part of the Niger River until Niamey, including the main tributaries Sirba and Goroul. The model was driven with observed, reanalyzed climate and LULC data for the years 1950–2009. In order to quantify the shares of influence, one simulation was carried out with constant land cover as of 1950, and one including LULC. As quantitative measure, the gradients of the simulated trends were compared to the observed trend. The modeling studies showed that for the Sirba River only the simulation which included LULC was able to reproduce the observed trend. The simulation without LULC showed a positive trend for flood magnitudes, but underestimated the trend significantly. For the Goroul River and the local flood of the Niger River at Niamey, the simulations were only partly able to reproduce the observed trend. In conclusion, the new LULC module enabled some first quantitative insights into the relative influence of LULC and climatic changes. For the Sirba catchment, the results imply that LULC and climatic changes contribute in roughly equal shares to the observed increase in flooding. For the other parts of the subcatchment, the results are less clear but show, that climatic changes and LULC are drivers for the flood increase; however their shares cannot be quantified. Based on these modeling results, we argue for a two-pillar adaptation strategy to reduce current and future flood risk: Flood mitigation for reducing LULC-induced flood increase, and flood adaptation for a general reduction of flood vulnerability.
The Tibetan Plateau is the largest elevated landmass in the world and profoundly influences atmospheric circulation patterns such as the Asian monsoon system. Therefore this area has been increasingly in focus of palaeoenvironmental studies. This thesis evaluates the applicability of organic biomarkers for palaeolimnological purposes on the Tibetan Plateau with a focus on aquatic macrophyte-derived biomarkers. Submerged aquatic macrophytes have to be considered to significantly influence the sediment organic matter due to their high abundance in many Tibetan lakes. They can show highly 13C-enriched biomass because of their carbon metabolism and it is therefore crucial for the interpretation of δ13C values in sediment cores to understand to which extent aquatic macrophytes contribute to the isotopic signal of the sediments in Tibetan lakes and in which way variations can be explained in a palaeolimnological context. Additionally, the high abundance of macrophytes makes them interesting as potential recorders of lake water δD. Hydrogen isotope analysis of biomarkers is a rapidly evolving field to reconstruct past hydrological conditions and therefore of special relevance on the Tibetan Plateau due to the direct linkage between variations of monsoon intensity and changes in regional precipitation / evaporation balances. A set of surface sediment and aquatic macrophyte samples from the central and eastern Tibetan Plateau was analysed for composition as well as carbon and hydrogen isotopes of n-alkanes. It was shown how variable δ13C values of bulk organic matter and leaf lipids can be in submerged macrophytes even of a single species and how strongly these parameters are affected by them in corresponding sediments. The estimated contribution of the macrophytes by means of a binary isotopic model was calculated to be up to 60% (mean: 40%) to total organic carbon and up to 100% (mean: 66%) to mid-chain n-alkanes. Hydrogen isotopes of n-alkanes turned out to record δD of meteoric water of the summer precipitation. The apparent enrichment factor between water and n-alkanes was in range of previously reported ones (≈-130‰) at the most humid sites, but smaller (average: -86‰) at sites with a negative moisture budget. This indicates an influence of evaporation and evapotranspiration on δD of source water for aquatic and terrestrial plants. The offset between δD of mid- and long-chain n-alkanes was close to zero in most of the samples, suggesting that lake water as well as soil and leaf water are affected to a similar extent by those effects. To apply biomarkers in a palaeolimnological context, the aliphatic biomarker fraction of a sediment core from Lake Koucha (34.0° N; 97.2° E; eastern Tibetan Plateau) was analysed for concentrations, δ13C and δD values of compounds. Before ca. 8 cal ka BP, the lake was dominated by aquatic macrophyte-derived mid-chain n-alkanes, while after 6 cal ka BP high concentrations of a C20 highly branched isoprenoid compound indicate a predominance of phytoplankton. Those two principally different states of the lake were linked by a transition period with high abundances of microbial biomarkers. δ13C values were relatively constant for long-chain n-alkanes, while mid-chain n-alkanes showed variations between -23.5 to -12.6‰. Highest values were observed for the assumed period of maximum macrophyte growth during the late glacial and for the phytoplankton maximum during the middle and late Holocene. Therefore, the enriched values were interpreted to be caused by carbon limitation which in turn was induced by high macrophyte and primary productivity, respectively. Hydrogen isotope signatures of mid-chain n-alkanes have been shown to be able to track a previously deduced episode of reduced moisture availability between ca. 10 and 7 cal ka BP, indicated by a 20‰ shift towards higher δD values. Indications for cooler episodes at 6.0, 3.1 and 1.8 cal ka BP were gained from drops of biomarker concentrations, especially microbial-derived hopanoids, and from coincidental shifts towards lower δ13C values. Those episodes correspond well with cool events reported from other locations on the Tibetan Plateau as well as in the Northern Hemisphere. To conclude, the study of recent sediments and plants improved the understanding of factors affecting the composition and isotopic signatures of aliphatic biomarkers in sediments. Concentrations and isotopic signatures of the biomarkers in Lake Koucha could be interpreted in a palaeolimnological context and contribute to the knowledge about the history of the lake. Aquatic macrophyte-derived mid-chain n-alkanes were especially useful, due to their high abundance in many Tibetan Lakes and their ability to record major changes of lake productivity and palaeo-hydrological conditions. Therefore, they have the potential to contribute to a fuller understanding of past climate variability in this key region for atmospheric circulation systems.
Central Asia is located at the confluence of large-scale atmospheric circulation systems. It is thus likely to be highly susceptible to changes in the dynamics of those systems; however, little is still known about the regional paleoclimate history. Here we present carbon and hydrogen isotopic compositions of n-alkanoic acids from a late Holocene sediment core from Lake Karakuli (eastern Pamir, Xinjiang Province, China). Instrumental evidence and isotopeenabled climate model experiments with the Laboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique Zoom model version 4 (LMDZ4) demonstrate that delta D values of precipitation in the region are influenced by both temperature and precipitation amount. We find that these parameters are inversely correlated on an annual scale, i.e., the climate has varied between relatively cool and wet and more warm and dry over the last 50 years. Since the isotopic signals of these changes are in the same direction and therefore additive, isotopes in precipitation are sensitive recorders of climatic changes in the region. Additionally, we infer that plants use year-round precipitation (including snowmelt), and thus leaf wax delta D values must also respond to shifts in the proportion of moisture derived from westerly storms during late winter and early spring. Downcore results give evidence for a gradual shift to cooler and wetter climates between 3.5 and 2.5 cal kyr BP, interrupted by a warm and dry episode between 3.0 and 2.7 kyr BP. Further cool and wet episodes occur between 1.9 and 1.5 and between 0.6 and 0.1 kyr BP, the latter coeval with the Little Ice Age. Warm and dry episodes from 2.5 to 1.9 and 1.5 to 0.6 kyr BP coincide with the Roman Warm Period and Medieval Climate Anomaly, respectively. Finally, we find a drying tend in recent decades. Regional comparisons lead us to infer that the strength and position of the westerlies, and wider northern hemispheric climate dynamics, control climatic shifts in arid Central Asia, leading to complex local responses. Our new archive from Lake Karakuli provides a detailed record of the local signatures of these climate transitions in the eastern Pamir.
Sinkholes and depressions are typical landforms of karst regions. They pose a considerable natural hazard to infrastructure, agriculture, economy and human life in affected areas worldwide. The physio-chemical processes of sinkholes and depression formation are manifold, ranging from dissolution and material erosion in the subsurface to mechanical subsidence/failure of the overburden. This thesis addresses the mechanisms leading to the development of sinkholes and depressions by using complementary methods: remote sensing, distinct element modelling and near-surface geophysics.
In the first part, detailed information about the (hydro)-geological background, ground structures, morphologies and spatio-temporal development of sinkholes and depressions at a very active karst area at the Dead Sea are derived from satellite image analysis, photogrammetry and geologic field surveys. There, clusters of an increasing number of sinkholes have been developing since the 1980s within large-scale depressions and are distributed over different kinds of surface materials: clayey mud, sandy-gravel alluvium and lacustrine evaporites (salt). The morphology of sinkholes differs depending in which material they form: Sinkholes in sandy-gravel alluvium and salt are generally deeper and narrower than sinkholes in the interbedded evaporite and mud deposits. From repeated aerial surveys, collapse precursory features like small-scale subsidence, individual holes and cracks are identified in all materials. The analysis sheds light on the ongoing hazardous subsidence process, which is driven by the base-level fall of the Dead Sea and by the dynamic formation of subsurface water channels.
In the second part of this thesis, a novel, 2D distinct element geomechanical modelling approach with the software PFC2D-V5 to simulating individual and multiple cavity growth and sinkhole and large-scale depression development is presented. The approach involves a stepwise material removal technique in void spaces of arbitrarily shaped geometries and is benchmarked by analytical and boundary element method solutions for circular cavities. Simulated compression and tension tests are used to calibrate model parameters with bulk rock properties for the materials of the field site. The simulations show that cavity and sinkhole evolution is controlled by material strength of both overburden and cavity host material, the depth and relative speed of the cavity growth and the developed stress pattern in the subsurface. Major findings are: (1) A progressively deepening differential subrosion with variable growth speed yields a more fragmented stress pattern with stress interaction between the cavities. It favours multiple sinkhole collapses and nesting within large-scale depressions. (2) Low-strength materials do not support large cavities in the material removal zone, and subsidence is mainly characterised by gradual sagging into the material removal zone with synclinal bending. (3) High-strength materials support large cavity formation, leading to sinkhole formation by sudden collapse of the overburden. (4) Large-scale depression formation happens either by coalescence of collapsing holes, block-wise brittle failure, or gradual sagging and lateral widening.
The distinct element based approach is compared to results from remote sensing and geophysics at the field site. The numerical simulation outcomes are generally in good agreement with derived morphometrics, documented surface and subsurface structures as well as seismic velocities. Complementary findings on the subrosion process are provided from electric and seismic measurements in the area.
Based on the novel combination of methods in this thesis, a generic model of karst landform evolution with focus on sinkhole and depression formation is developed. A deepening subrosion system related to preferential flow paths evolves and creates void spaces and subsurface conduits. This subsequently leads to hazardous subsidence, and the formation of sinkholes within large-scale depressions. Finally, a monitoring system for shallow natural hazard phenomena consisting of geodetic and geophysical observations is proposed for similarly affected areas.
Mechanical and/or chemical removal of material from the subsurface may generate large subsurface cavities, the destabilisation of which can lead to ground collapse and the formation of sinkholes. Numerical simulation of the interaction of cavity growth, host material deformation and overburden collapse is desirable to better understand the sinkhole hazard but is a challenging task due to the involved high strains and material discontinuities. Here, we present 2-D distinct element method numerical simulations of cavity growth and sinkhole development. Firstly, we simulate cavity formation by quasi-static, stepwise removal of material in a single growing zone of an arbitrary geometry and depth. We benchmark this approach against analytical and boundary element method models of a deep void space in a linear elastic material. Secondly, we explore the effects of properties of different uniform materials on cavity stability and sinkhole development. We perform simulated biaxial tests to calibrate macroscopic geotechnical parameters of three model materials representative of those in which sinkholes develop at the Dead Sea shoreline: mud, alluvium and salt. We show that weak materials do not support large cavities, leading to gradual sagging or suffusion-style subsidence. Strong materials support quasi-stable to stable cavities, the overburdens of which may fail suddenly in a caprock or bedrock collapse style. Thirdly, we examine the consequences of layered arrangements of weak and strong materials. We find that these are more susceptible to sinkhole collapse than uniform materials not only due to a lower integrated strength of the overburden but also due to an inhibition of stabilising stress arching. Finally, we compare our model sinkhole geometries to observations at the Ghor Al-Haditha sinkhole site in Jordan. Sinkhole depth ∕ diameter ratios of 0.15 in mud, 0.37 in alluvium and 0.33 in salt are reproduced successfully in the calibrated model materials. The model results suggest that the observed distribution of sinkhole depth ∕ diameter values in each material type may partly reflect sinkhole growth trends.
Orthopyroxenes of a high temperature protomylonite of the Ivrea Zone, Northern Italy show twin like polysynthetic lamellae parallel to {210} of the hypersthene host. The transformation is caused by plastic deformation under high metamorphic conditions which has resulted in dynamic recrystallization of pyroxene and plagioclase. The lamellae consist of clinohypersthene. The twin plane and the lamellar clino-orthoinversion of hypersthene due to natural deformation have not been described hitherto.
The Indian summer monsoon (ISM) is one of the largest climate systems on earth and impacts the livelihood of nearly 40% of the world’s population. Despite dedicated efforts, a comprehensive picture of monsoon variability has proved elusive largely due to the absence of long term high resolution records, spatial inhomogeneity of the monsoon precipitation, and the complex forcing mechanisms (solar insolation, internal teleconnections for e.g., El Niño-Southern Oscillation, tropical-midlatitude interactions). My work aims to improve the understanding of monsoon variability through generation of long term high resolution palaeoclimate data from climatically sensitive regions in the ISM and westerlies domain. To achieve this aim I have (i) identified proxies (sedimentological, geochemical, isotopic, and mineralogical) that are sensitive to environmental changes; (ii) used the identified proxies to generate long term palaeoclimate data from two climatically sensitive regions, one in NW Himalayas (transitional westerlies and ISM domain in the Spiti valley and one in the core monsoon zone (Lonar lake) in central India); (iii) undertaken a regional overview to generate “snapshots” of selected time slices; and (iv) interpreted the spatial precipitation anomalies in terms of those caused by modern teleconnections. This approach must be considered only as the first step towards identifying the past teleconnections as the boundary conditions in the past were significantly different from today and would have impacted the precipitation anomalies. As the Spiti valley is located in the in the active tectonic orogen of Himalayas, it was essential to understand the role of regional tectonics to make valid interpretations of catchment erosion and detrital influx into the lake. My approach of using integrated structural/morphometric and geomorphic signatures provided clear evidence for active tectonics in this area and demonstrated the suitability of these lacustrine sediments as palaleoseismic archives. The investigations on the lacustrine outcrops in Spiti valley also provided information on changes in seasonality of precipitation and occurrence of frequent and intense periods (ca. 6.8-6.1 cal ka BP) of detrital influx indicating extreme hydrological events in the past. Regional comparison for this time slice indicates a possible extended “break-monsoon like” mode for the monsoon that favors enhanced precipitation over the Tibetan plateau, Himalayas and their foothills. My studies on surface sediments from Lonar lake helped to identify environmentally sensitive proxies which could also be used to interpret palaeodata obtained from a ca. 10m long core raised from the lake in 2008. The core encompasses the entire Holocene and is the first well dated (by 14C) archive from the core monsoon zone of central India. My identification of authigenic evaporite gaylussite crystals within the core sediments provided evidence of exceptionally drier conditions during 4.7-3.9 and 2.0-0.5 cal ka BP. Additionally, isotopic investigations on these crystals provided information on eutrophication, stratification, and carbon cycling processes in the lake.
The study of outcrop modeling is located at the interface between two fields of expertise, Sedimentology and Computing Geoscience, which respectively investigates and simulates geological heterogeneity observed in the sedimentary record. During the last past years, modeling tools and techniques were constantly improved. In parallel, the study of Phanerozoic carbonate deposits emphasized the common occurrence of a random facies distribution along single depositional domain. Although both fields of expertise are intrinsically linked during outcrop simulation, their respective advances have not been combined in literature to enhance carbonate modeling studies. The present study re-examines the modeling strategy adapted to the simulation of shallow-water carbonate systems, based on a close relationship between field sedimentology and modeling capabilities. In the present study, the evaluation of three commonly used algorithms Truncated Gaussian Simulation (TGSim), Sequential Indicator Simulation (SISim), and Indicator Kriging (IK), were performed for the first time using visual and quantitative comparisons on an ideally suited carbonate outcrop. The results show that the heterogeneity of carbonate rocks cannot be fully simulated using one single algorithm. The operating mode of each algorithm involves capabilities as well as drawbacks that are not capable to match all field observations carried out across the modeling area. Two end members in the spectrum of carbonate depositional settings, a low-angle Jurassic ramp (High Atlas, Morocco) and a Triassic isolated platform (Dolomites, Italy), were investigated to obtain a complete overview of the geological heterogeneity in shallow-water carbonate systems. Field sedimentology and statistical analysis performed on the type, morphology, distribution, and association of carbonate bodies and combined with palaeodepositional reconstructions, emphasize similar results. At the basin scale (x 1 km), facies association, composed of facies recording similar depositional conditions, displays linear and ordered transitions between depositional domains. Contrarily, at the bedding scale (x 0.1 km), individual lithofacies type shows a mosaic-like distribution consisting of an arrangement of spatially independent lithofacies bodies along the depositional profile. The increase of spatial disorder from the basin to bedding scale results from the influence of autocyclic factors on the transport and deposition of carbonate sediments. Scale-dependent types of carbonate heterogeneity are linked with the evaluation of algorithms in order to establish a modeling strategy that considers both the sedimentary characteristics of the outcrop and the modeling capabilities. A surface-based modeling approach was used to model depositional sequences. Facies associations were populated using TGSim to preserve ordered trends between depositional domains. At the lithofacies scale, a fully stochastic approach with SISim was applied to simulate a mosaic-like lithofacies distribution. This new workflow is designed to improve the simulation of carbonate rocks, based on the modeling of each scale of heterogeneity individually. Contrarily to simulation methods applied in literature, the present study considers that the use of one single simulation technique is unlikely to correctly model the natural patterns and variability of carbonate rocks. The implementation of different techniques customized for each level of the stratigraphic hierarchy provides the essential computing flexibility to model carbonate systems. Closer feedback between advances carried out in the field of Sedimentology and Computing Geoscience should be promoted during future outcrop simulations for the enhancement of 3-D geological models.
Vor dem Hintergrund der Auffassung, dass ethnische Minderheiten eine Form so-zialer Organisation darstellen, verfolgt die Studie – unter Berücksichtigung der Mehr-deutigkeit des Raumbegriffs – das Ziel, anhand von Beispielen aus Rumänien ein Konzept zu entwickeln, mit dem sich die aktuelle Beziehung von Ethnizität und Raum im Transformationsprozess adäquat analysieren und beschreiben lässt.
With accelerating climate cooling in the late Cenozoic, glacial and periglacial erosion became more widespread on the surface of the Earth. The resultant shift in erosion patterns significantly changed the large-scale morphology of many mountain ranges worldwide. Whereas the glacial fingerprint is easily distinguished by its characteristic fjords and U-shaped valleys, the periglacial fingerprint is more subtle but potentially prevails in some mid- to high-latitude landscapes. Previous models have advocated a frost-driven control on debris production at steep headwalls and glacial valley sides. Here we investigate the important role that periglacial processes also play in less steep parts of mountain landscapes. Understanding the influences of frost-driven processes in low-relief areas requires a focus on the consequences of an accreting soil mantle, which characterises such surfaces. We present a new model that quantifies two key physical processes: frost cracking and frost creep, as a function of both temperature and sediment thickness. Our results yield new insights into how climate and sediment transport properties combine to scale the intensity of periglacial processes. The thickness of the soil mantle strongly modulates the relation between climate and the intensity of mechanical weathering and sediment flux. Our results also point to an offset between the conditions that promote frost cracking and those that promote frost creep, indicating that a stable climate can provide optimal conditions for only one of those processes at a time. Finally, quantifying these relations also opens up the possibility of including periglacial processes in large-scale, long-term landscape evolution models, as demonstrated in a companion paper.
The concept of hydrologic connectivity summarizes all flow processes that link separate regions of a landscape. As such, it is a central theme in the field of catchment hydrology, with influence on neighboring disciplines such as ecology and geomorphology. It is widely acknowledged to be an important key in understanding the response behavior of a catchment and has at the same time inspired research on internal processes over a broad range of scales. From this process-hydrological point of view, hydrological connectivity is the conceptual framework to link local observations across space and scales.
This is the context in which the four studies this thesis comprises of were conducted. The focus was on structures and their spatial organization as important control on preferential subsurface flow. Each experiment covered a part of the conceptualized flow path from hillslopes to the stream: soil profile, hillslope, riparian zone, and stream.
For each study site, the most characteristic structures of the investigated domain and scale, such as slope deposits and peat layers were identified based on preliminary or previous investigations or literature reviews. Additionally, further structural data was collected and topographical analyses were carried out. Flow processes were observed either based on response observations (soil moisture changes or discharge patterns) or direct measurement (advective heat transport). Based on these data, the flow-relevance of the characteristic structures was evaluated, especially with regard to hillslope to stream connectivity.
Results of the four studies revealed a clear relationship between characteristic spatial structures and the hydrological behavior of the catchment. Especially the spatial distribution of structures throughout the study domain and their interconnectedness were crucial for the establishment of preferential flow paths and their relevance for large-scale processes. Plot and hillslope-scale irrigation experiments showed that the macropores of a heterogeneous, skeletal soil enabled preferential flow paths at the scale of centimeters through the otherwise unsaturated soil. These flow paths connected throughout the soil column and across the hillslope and facilitated substantial amounts of vertical and lateral flow through periglacial slope deposits.
In the riparian zone of the same headwater catchment, the connectivity between hillslopes and stream was controlled by topography and the dualism between characteristic subsurface structures and the geomorphological heterogeneity of the stream channel. At the small scale (1 m to 10 m) highest gains always occurred at steps along the longitudinal streambed profile, which also controlled discharge patterns at the large scale (100 m) during base flow conditions (number of steps per section). During medium and high flow conditions, however, the impact of topography and parafluvial flow through riparian zone structures prevailed and dominated the large-scale response patterns.
In the streambed of a lowland river, low permeability peat layers affected the connectivity between surface water and groundwater, but also between surface water and the hyporheic zone. The crucial factor was not the permeability of the streambed itself, but rather the spatial arrangement of flow-impeding peat layers, causing increased vertical flow through narrow “windows” in contrast to predominantly lateral flow in extended areas of high hydraulic conductivity sediments.
These results show that the spatial organization of structures was an important control for hydrological processes at all scales and study areas. In a final step, the observations from different scales and catchment elements were put in relation and compared. The main focus was on the theoretical analysis of the scale hierarchies of structures and processes and the direction of causal dependencies in this context. Based on the resulting hierarchical structure, a conceptual framework was developed which is capable of representing the system’s complexity while allowing for adequate simplifications.
The resulting concept of the parabolic scale series is based on the insight that flow processes in the terrestrial part of the catchment (soil and hillslopes) converge. This means that small-scale processes assemble and form large-scale processes and responses. Processes in the riparian zone and the streambed, however, are not well represented by the idea of convergence. Here, the large-scale catchment signal arrives and is modified by structures in the riparian zone, stream morphology, and the small-scale interactions between surface water and groundwater. Flow paths diverge and processes can better be represented by proceeding from large scales to smaller ones. The catchment-scale representation of processes and structures is thus the conceptual link between terrestrial hillslope processes and processes in the riparian corridor.
The phrase form and function was established in architecture and biology and refers to the idea that form and functionality are closely correlated, influence each other, and co-evolve. We suggest transferring this idea to hydrological systems to separate and analyze their two main characteristics: their form, which is equivalent to the spatial structure and static properties, and their function, equivalent to internal responses and hydrological behavior. While this approach is not particularly new to hydrological field research, we want to employ this concept to explicitly pursue the question of what information is most advantageous to understand a hydrological system. We applied this concept to subsurface flow within a hillslope, with a methodological focus on function: we conducted observations during a natural storm event and followed this with a hillslope-scale irrigation experiment. The results are used to infer hydrological processes of the monitored system. Based on these findings, the explanatory power and conclusiveness of the data are discussed. The measurements included basic hydrological monitoring methods, like piezometers, soil moisture, and discharge measurements. These were accompanied by isotope sampling and a novel application of 2-D time-lapse GPR (ground-penetrating radar). The main finding regarding the processes in the hillslope was that preferential flow paths were established quickly, despite unsaturated conditions. These flow paths also caused a detectable signal in the catchment response following a natural rainfall event, showing that these processes are relevant also at the catchment scale. Thus, we conclude that response observations (dynamics and patterns, i.e., indicators of function) were well suited to describing processes at the observational scale. Especially the use of 2-D time-lapse GPR measurements, providing detailed subsurface response patterns, as well as the combination of stream-centered and hillslope-centered approaches, allowed us to link processes and put them in a larger context. Transfer to other scales beyond observational scale and generalizations, however, rely on the knowledge of structures (form) and remain speculative. The complementary approach with a methodological focus on form (i.e., structure exploration) is presented and discussed in the companion paper by Jackisch et al. (2017).
The Central Andean region is characterized by diverse climate zones with sharp transitions between them. In this work, the area of interest is the South-Central Andes in northwestern Argentina that borders with Bolivia and Chile. The focus is the observation of soil moisture and water vapour with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) remote-sensing methodologies. Because of the rapid temporal and spatial variations of water vapour and moisture circulations, monitoring this part of the hydrological cycle is crucial for understanding the mechanisms that control the local climate. Moreover, GNSS-based techniques have previously shown high potential and are appropriate for further investigation. This study includes both logistic-organization effort and data analysis. As for the prior, three GNSS ground stations were installed in remote locations in northwestern Argentina to acquire observations, where there was no availability of third-party data.
The methodological development for the observation of the climate variables of soil moisture and water vapour is independent and relies on different approaches. The soil-moisture estimation with GNSS reflectometry is an approximation that has demonstrated promising results, but it has yet to be operationally employed. Thus, a more advanced algorithm that exploits more observations from multiple satellite constellations was developed using data from two pilot stations in Germany. Additionally, this algorithm was slightly modified and used in a sea-level measurement campaign. Although the objective of this application is not related to monitoring hydrological parameters, its methodology is based on the same principles and helps to evaluate the core algorithm. On the other hand, water-vapour monitoring with GNSS observations is a well-established technique that is utilized operationally. Hence, the scope of this study is conducting a meteorological analysis by examining the along-the-zenith air-moisture levels and introducing indices related to the azimuthal gradient.
The results of the experiments indicate higher-quality soil moisture observations with the new algorithm. Furthermore, the analysis using the stations in northwestern Argentina illustrates the limits of this technology because of varying soil conditions and shows future research directions. The water-vapour analysis points out the strong influence of the topography on atmospheric moisture circulation and rainfall generation. Moreover, the GNSS time series allows for the identification of seasonal signatures, and the azimuthal-gradient indices permit the detection of main circulation pathways.
Schwarz-Rot-Geil
(2018)
The electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) method is widely used to investigate geological, geotechnical, and hydrogeological problems in inland and aquatic environments (i.e., lakes, rivers, and seas). The objective of the ERT method is to obtain reliable resistivity models of the subsurface that can be interpreted in terms of the subsurface structure and petrophysical properties. The reliability of the resulting resistivity models depends not only on the quality of the acquired data, but also on the employed inversion strategy. Inversion of ERT data results in multiple solutions that explain the measured data equally well. Typical inversion approaches rely on different deterministic (local) strategies that consider different smoothing and damping strategies to stabilize the inversion. However, such strategies suffer from the trade-off of smearing possible sharp subsurface interfaces separating layers with resistivity contrasts of up to several orders of magnitude. When prior information (e.g., from outcrops, boreholes, or other geophysical surveys) suggests sharp resistivity variations, it might be advantageous to adapt the parameterization and inversion strategies to obtain more stable and geologically reliable model solutions. Adaptations to traditional local inversions, for example, by using different structural and/or geostatistical constraints, may help to retrieve sharper model solutions. In addition, layer-based model parameterization in combination with local or global inversion approaches can be used to obtain models with sharp boundaries.
In this thesis, I study three typical layered near-surface environments in which prior information is used to adapt 2D inversion strategies to favor layered model solutions. In cooperation with the coauthors of Chapters 2-4, I consider two general strategies. Our first approach uses a layer-based model parameterization and a well-established global inversion strategy to generate ensembles of model solutions and assess uncertainties related to the non-uniqueness of the inverse problem. We apply this method to invert ERT data sets collected in an inland coastal area of northern France (Chapter~2) and offshore of two Arctic regions (Chapter~3). Our second approach consists of using geostatistical regularizations with different correlation lengths. We apply this strategy to a more complex subsurface scenario on a local intermountain alluvial fan in southwestern Germany (Chapter~4). Overall, our inversion approaches allow us to obtain resistivity models that agree with the general geological understanding of the studied field sites. These strategies are rather general and can be applied to various geological environments where a layered subsurface structure is expected. The flexibility of our strategies allows adaptations to invert other kinds of geophysical data sets such as seismic refraction or electromagnetic induction methods, and could be considered for joint inversion approaches.
En el presente trabajo se realizó una investigación multidisciplinaria combinando métodos de geomorfología tectónica con estudios geofisicos y estructurales, focalizados principalmente en la caracterización neotectónica de ambos faldeos de la sierra de La Candelaria y del extremo sur de la cuenca de Metán. La zona de estudio se encuentra ubicada en la región limítrofe entre las provincias de Salta y Tucumán y pertenece a la provincia geológica del Sistema Santa Bárbara.
El principal objetivo consistió en contextualizar las evidencias de actividad tectónica cuaternaria de la región mediante la propuesta de un modelo estructural novedoso, con el propósito de incrementar la información disponible sobre estructuras neotectónicas y su potencial sismogénico. Con este fin, se aplicaron e integraron diversas técnicas tales como la interpretación de líneas sísmicas de reflexión, construcción de secciones estructurales balanceadas, y métodos geofísicos someros, para constatar el comportamiento en profundidad tanto de las estructuras geológicas identificadas en superficie como de las posibles fallas ciegas corticales involucradas.
En primer lugar, se realizó un relevamiento regional del área de estudio empleando imágenes satelitales multiespectrales LANDSAT y SENTINEL 2, que permitieron reconocer diferentes niveles de abanicos aluviales y terrazas fluviales cuaternarios. Mediante la determinación de diferentes indicadores morfométricos en modelos de elevación digital (MED), junto con observaciones de campo, fue posible identificar evidencias de deformación sobre dichos niveles cuaternarios que han sido relacionadas genéticamente con cuatro fallas neotectónicas. Tres de ellas (fallas Arias, El Quemado y Copo Quile) fueron seleccionadas para efectuar estudios de mayor detalle por medio de la aplicación de métodos de geofísica somera (tomografía eléctrica resistiva (ERT) y tomografía sísmica de refracción Sísmica (SRT)), que permitieron corroborar su existencia en profundidad, realizar inferencias geométricas y cinemáticas, y estimar la magnitud de la deformación reciente. Las fallas Arias y El Quemado fueron interpretadas como fallas inversas relacionadas con deslizamiento flexural interstratal, mientras que la falla Copo Quile se interpretó como una falla inversa ciega de bajo ángulo.También se realizó una interpretación conjunta de líneas sísmicas de reflexión y pozos exploratorios pertenecientes a áreas hidrocarburíferas de las cuencas de Choromoro y Metán con el fin de contextualizar las principales estructuras reconocidas en el marco estratigráfico y tectónico regional. Toda la información fue integrada en una sección estructural balanceada mediante técnicas de modelado cinemático. Dicho modelo permite inferir que la deformación cuaternaria reconocida está relacionada al desplazamiento del basamento a lo largo de un corrimiento ciego, responsable del levantamiento de la sierra de La Candelaria y el cerr Cantero. Asimismo, el modelo cinemático permite interpretar la ubicación aproximada de los principales niveles de despegue que controlan el estilo de deformación. El nivel de despegue más somero, que controla la deformación de la cobertura sedimentaria se encuentra a 4 km de profundidad, a 21 km se estima la presencia de otra zona de cizalla subhorizontal dentro del basamento.
Finalmente, a partir de la integración de todos los resultados obtenidos, se evaluó el potencial sismogénico de las fallas en la zona de estudio. Las fallas de primer orden que controlan la deformación en la zona son las responsables de los grandes terremotos. Mientras, las fallas Cuaternarias flexodeslizantes e inversas afectan solamente a la cobertura sedimentaria y serían estructuras de segundo orden que acomodan la deformación y fueron activadas durante el cuaternario con movimientos asísmicos y/o sísmicos de muy baja magnitud.
Estos resultados permiten inferir que el corrimiento La Candelaria constituye una fuente sismogénica potencial de importancia para la región, donde se ubican numerosas poblaciones y obras civiles de envergadura. Por otra parte, la sección estructural balanceada implica la presencia de otras fallas ciegas de distinto orden de magnitud que podrían ser posibles fuentes sismogénicas profundas adicionales, marcando la necesidad de continuar con el desarrollo de este tipo de estudios en esta región tectónicamente activa.
Uplift in the broken Andean foreland of the Argentine Santa Bárbara System (SBS) is associated with the contractional reactivation of basement anisotropies, similar to those reported from the thick-skinned Cretaceous-Eocene Laramide province of North America. Fault scarps, deformed Quaternary deposits and landforms, disrupted drainage patterns, and medium-sized earthquakes within the SBS suggest that movement along these structures may be a recurring phenomenon, with yet to be defined repeat intervals and rupture lengths. In contrast to the Subandes thrust belt farther north, where eastward-migrating deformation has generated a well-defined thrust front, the SBS records spatiotemporally disparate deformation along structures that are only known to the first order. We present herein the results of geomorphic desktop analyses, structural field observations, and 2D electrical resistivity tomography and seismic-refraction tomography surveys and an interpretation of seismic reflection profiles across suspected fault scarps in the sedimentary basins adjacent to the Candelaria Range (CR) basement uplift, in the south-central part of the SBS. Our analysis in the CR piedmont areas reveals consistency between the results of near-surface electrical resistivity and seismic-refraction tomography surveys, the locations of prominent fault scarps, and structural geometries at greater depth imaged by seismic reflection data. We suggest that this deformation is driven by deep-seated blind thrusting beneath the CR and associated regional warping, while shortening involving Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary strata in the adjacent basins was accommodated by layer-parallel folding and flexural-slip faults that cut through Quaternary landforms and deposits at the surface.
Rezensierte Werke: Rohrbach, Christian: Regionale Identität im Global Village : Chance oder Handicap für die Regionalentwicklung? / von Christian Rohrbach. - Frankfurt am Main : Inst. für Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der J.-W.-Goethe-Univ., 1999. - 149 S. : graph. Darst., Kt. - (Materialien / Institut für Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der J.-W.-Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main ; 26 ; Veröffentlichungen der Gesellschaft für regionalwissenschaftliche Forschung Rhein-Main (Regio-Rhein-Main) e. V. ; 12) Zugl.: Frankfurt am Main, Univ., Diplomarbeit, 1998 ISBN 3-923218-19-2 (kart.) Schuhbauer, Jörg: Wirtschaftsbezogene regionale Identität / Jörg Schuhbauer. - Mannheim : Selbstverl. des Geographischen Inst. der Univ. Mannheim, 1996. - XI, 227 S. : graph. Darst. - (Mannheimer geographische Arbeiten ; 42) Zugl.: Mannheim, Univ., Diss., 1996 ISBN 3-923750-63-3 Wolk, Christoph: Regionalgeschichte und Identität : empirische Untersuchungen am Kaiserstuhl / Christoph Wolk. - Frankfurt am Main [u.a.] : Lang, 1998. - 274 S. : graph. Darst. - (Freiburger Beiträge zur Erziehungswissenschaft und Fachdidaktik ; 5) Zugl.: Freiburg (Breisgau), Pädag. Hochsch., Diss., 1997 ISBN 3-631-32780-3 (kart.)
Rezensiertes Werk: Das Ruhrgebiet : geographische Exkursionen / Gesellschaft für Deutschlandforschung e.V. ... Hrsg. von Karl Eckart ... im Auftr. des Ortsausschusses für den 27. Deutschen Schulgeographentag, Duisburg 2000. - Kongress: Deutscher Schulgeographentag ; 27 (Duisburg) : 2000.10.02-07. - 1. Aufl. - Gotha [u.a.] : Klett-Perthes, 2000. - 216 S. : Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. - (Perthes Exkursionsführer) ISBN 3-623-00639-4
Rezensiertes Werk: Komlosy, Andrea: Grenze und ungleiche regionale Entwicklung : Binnenmarkt und Migration in der Habsburgermonarchie / Andrea Komlosy. - 1. Aufl. - Wien : Promedia Dr.-und-Verl.-Ges., 2003. - 510 S. : Ill., Kt. - (Promedia Forschung) Zugl.: Wien, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2002 ISBN 3-85371-201-0
The Central Pontides is an accretionary-type orogenic area within the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt characterized by pre-collisional tectonic continental growth. The region comprises Mesozoic subduction-accretionary complexes and an accreted intra-oceanic arc that are sandwiched between the Laurasian active continental margin and Gondwana-derived the Kırşehir Block. The subduction-accretion complexes mainly consist of an Albian-Turonian accretionary wedge representing the Laurasian active continental margin. To the north, the wedge consists of slate/phyllite and metasandstone intercalation with recrystallized limestone, Na-amphibole-bearing metabasite (PT= 7–12 kbar and 400 ± 70 ºC) and tectonic slices of serpentinite representing accreted distal part of a large Lower Cretaceous submarine turbidite fan deposited on the Laurasian active continental margin that was subsequently accreted and metamorphosed. Raman spectra of carbonaceous material (RSCM) of the metapelitic rocks revealed that the metaflysch sequence consists of metamorphic packets with distinct peak metamorphic temperatures. The majority of the metapelites are low-temperature (ca. 330 °C) slates characterized by lack of differentiation of the graphite (G) and D2 defect bands. They possibly represent offscraped distal turbidites along the toe of the Albian accretionary wedge. The rest are phyllites that are characterized by slightly pronounced G band with D2 defect band occurring on its shoulder. Peak metamorphic temperatures of these phyllites are constrained to 370-385 °C. The phyllites are associated with a strip of incipient blueschist facies metabasites which are found as slivers within the offscraped distal turbidites. They possibly represent underplated continental metasediments together with oceanic crustal basalt along the basal décollement. Tectonic emplacement of the underplated rocks into the offscraped distal turbidites was possibly achieved by out-of-sequence thrusting causing tectonic thickening and uplift of the wedge. 40Ar/39Ar phengite ages from the phyllites are ca. 100 Ma, indicating Albian subduction and regional HP metamorphism.
The accreted continental metasediments are underlain by HP/LT metamorphic rocks of oceanic origin along an extensional shear zone. The oceanic metamorphic sequence mainly comprises tectonically thickened deep-seated eclogite to blueschist facies metabasites and micaschists. In the studied area, metabasites are epidote-blueschists locally with garnet (PT= 17 ± 1 kbar and 500 ± 40 °C). Lawsonite-blueschists are exposed as blocks along the extensional shear zone (PT= 14 ± 2 kbar and 370–440 °C). They are possibly associated with low shear stress regime of the initial stage of convergence. Close to the shear zone, the footwall micaschists consist of quartz, phengite, paragonite, chlorite, rutile with syn-kinematic albite porphyroblast formed by pervasive shearing during exhumation. These types of micaschists are tourmaline-bearing and their retrograde nature suggests high-fluid flux along shear zones. Peak metamorphic mineral assemblages are partly preserved in the chloritoid-micaschist farther away from the shear zone representing the zero strain domains during exhumation. Three peak metamorphic assemblages are identified and their PT conditions are constrained by pseudosections produced by Theriak-Domino and by Raman spectra of carbonaceous material: 1) garnet-chloritoid-glaucophane with lawsonite pseudomorphs (P= 17.5 ± 1 kbar, T: 390-450 °C) 2) chloritoid with glaucophane pseudomorphs (P= 16-18 kbar, T: 475 ± 40 °C) and 3) relatively high-Mg chloritoid (17%) with jadeite pseudomorphs (P= 22-25 kbar; T: 440 ± 30 °C) in addition to phengite, paragonite, quartz, chlorite, rutile and apatite. The last mineral assemblage is interpreted as transformation of the chloritoid + glaucophane assemblage to chloritoid + jadeite paragenesis with increasing pressure. Absence of tourmaline suggests that the chloritoid-micaschist did not interact with B-rich fluids during zero strain exhumation. 40Ar/39Ar phengite age of a pervasively sheared footwall micaschist is constrained to 100.6 ± 1.3 Ma and that of a chloritoid-micaschist is constrained to 91.8 ± 1.8 Ma suggesting exhumation during on-going subduction with a southward younging of the basal accretion and the regional metamorphism. To the south, accretionary wedge consists of blueschist and greenschist facies metabasite, marble and volcanogenic metasediment intercalation. 40Ar/39Ar phengite dating reveals that this part of the wedge is of Middle Jurassic age partly overprinted during the Albian. Emplacement of the Middle Jurassic subduction-accretion complexes is possibly associated with obliquity of the Albian convergence.
Peak metamorphic assemblages and PT estimates of the deep-seated oceanic metamorphic sequence suggest tectonic stacking within wedge with different depths of burial. Coupling and exhumation of the distinct metamorphic slices are controlled by decompression of the wedge possibly along a retreating slab. Structurally, decompression of the wedge is evident by an extensional shear zone and the footwall micaschists with syn-kinematic albite porphyroblasts. Post-kinematic garnets with increasing grossular content and pseudomorphing minerals within the chloritoid-micaschists also support decompression model without an extra heating.
Thickening of subduction-accretionary complexes is attributed to i) significant amount of clastic sediment supply from the overriding continental domain and ii) deep level basal underplating by propagation of the décollement along a retreating slab. Underplating by basal décollement propagation and subsequent exhumation of the deep-seated subduction-accretion complexes are connected and controlled by slab rollback creating a necessary space for progressive basal accretion along the plate interface and extension of the wedge above for exhumation of the tectonically thickened metamorphic sequences. This might be the most common mechanism of the tectonic thickening and subsequent exhumation of deep-seated HP/LT subduction-accretion complexes.
To the south, the Albian-Turonian accretionary wedge structurally overlies a low-grade volcanic arc sequence consisting of low-grade metavolcanic rocks and overlying metasedimentary succession is exposed north of the İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture (İAES), separating Laurasia from Gondwana-derived terranes. The metavolcanic rocks mainly consist of basaltic andesite/andesite and mafic cognate xenolith-bearing rhyolite with their pyroclastic equivalents, which are interbedded with recrystallized pelagic limestone and chert. The metavolcanic rocks are stratigraphically overlain by recrystallized micritic limestone with rare volcanogenic metaclastic rocks. Two groups can be identified based on trace and rare earth element characteristics. The first group consists of basaltic andesite/andesite (BA1) and rhyolite with abundant cognate gabbroic xenoliths. It is characterized by relative enrichment of LREE with respect to HREE. The rocks are enriched in fluid mobile LILE, and strongly depleted in Ti and P reflecting fractionation of Fe-Ti oxides and apatite, which are found in the mafic cognate xenoliths. Abundant cognate gabbroic xenoliths and identical trace and rare earth elements compositions suggest that rhyolites and basaltic andesites/andesites (BA1) are cogenetic and felsic rocks were derived from a common mafic parental magma by fractional crystallization and accumulation processes. The second group consists only of basaltic andesites (BA2) with flat REE pattern resembling island arc tholeiites. Although enriched in LILE, this group is not depleted in Ti or P.
Geochemistry of the metavolcanic rocks indicates supra-subduction volcanism evidenced by depletion of HFSE and enrichment of LILE. The arc sequence is sandwiched between an Albian-Turonian subduction-accretionary complex representing the Laurasian active margin and an ophiolitic mélange. Absence of continent derived detritus in the arc sequence and its tectonic setting in a wide Cretaceous accretionary complex suggest that the Kösdağ Arc was intra-oceanic. This is in accordance with basaltic andesites (BA2) with island arc tholeiite REE pattern.
Zircons from two metarhyolite samples give Late Cretaceous (93.8 ± 1.9 and 94.4 ± 1.9 Ma) U/Pb ages. Low-grade regional metamorphism of the intra-oceanic arc sequence is constrained 69.9 ± 0.4 Ma by 40Ar/39Ar dating on metamorphic muscovite from a metarhyolite indicating that the arc sequence became part of a wide Tethyan Cretaceous accretionary complex by the latest Cretaceous. The youngest 40Ar/39Ar phengite age from the overlying subduction-accretion complexes is 92 Ma confirming southward younging of an accretionary-type orogenic belt. Hence, the arc sequence represents an intra-oceanic paleo-arc that formed above the sinking Tethyan slab and finally accreted to Laurasian active continental margin. Abrupt non-collisional termination of arc volcanism was possibly associated with southward migration of the arc volcanism similar to the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc system.
The intra-oceanic Kösdağ Arc is coeval with the obducted supra-subduction ophiolites in NW Turkey suggesting that it represents part of the presumed but missing incipient intra-oceanic arc associated with the generation of the regional supra-subduction ophiolites. Remnants of a Late Cretaceous intra-oceanic paleo-arc and supra-subduction ophiolites can be traced eastward within the Alp-Himalayan orogenic belt. This reveals that Late Cretaceous intra-oceanic subduction occurred as connected event above the sinking Tethyan slab. It resulted as arc accretion to Laurasian active margin and supra-subduction ophiolite obduction on Gondwana-derived terranes.
Optical flow models as an open benchmark for radar-based precipitation nowcasting (rainymotion v0.1)
(2019)
Quantitative precipitation nowcasting (QPN) has become an essential technique in various application contexts, such as early warning or urban sewage control. A common heuristic prediction approach is to track the motion of precipitation features from a sequence of weather radar images and then to displace the precipitation field to the imminent future (minutes to hours) based on that motion, assuming that the intensity of the features remains constant (“Lagrangian persistence”). In that context, “optical flow” has become one of the most popular tracking techniques. Yet the present landscape of computational QPN models still struggles with producing open software implementations. Focusing on this gap, we have developed and extensively benchmarked a stack of models based on different optical flow algorithms for the tracking step and a set of parsimonious extrapolation procedures based on image warping and advection. We demonstrate that these models provide skillful predictions comparable with or even superior to state-of-the-art operational software. Our software library (“rainymotion”) for precipitation nowcasting is written in the Python programming language and openly available at GitHub (https://github.com/hydrogo/rainymotion, Ayzel et al., 2019). That way, the library may serve as a tool for providing fast, free, and transparent solutions that could serve as a benchmark for further model development and hypothesis testing – a benchmark that is far more advanced than the conventional benchmark of Eulerian persistence commonly used in QPN verification experiments.
The Aral Sea desiccation and related changes in hydroclimatic conditions on a regional level is a hot topic for past decades. The key problem of scientific research projects devoted to an investigation of modern Aral Sea basin hydrological regime is its discontinuous nature – the only limited amount of papers takes into account the complex runoff formation system entirely. Addressing this challenge we have developed a continuous prediction system for assessing freshwater inflow into the Small Aral Sea based on coupling stack of hydrological and data-driven models. Results show a good prediction skill and approve the possibility to develop a valuable water assessment tool which utilizes the power of classical physically based and modern machine learning models both for territories with complex water management system and strong water-related data scarcity. The source code and data of the proposed system is available on a Github page (https://github.com/SMASHIproject/IWRM2018).
RainNet v1.0
(2020)
In this study, we present RainNet, a deep convolutional neural network for radar-based precipitation nowcasting. Its design was inspired by the U-Net and SegNet families of deep learning models, which were originally designed for binary segmentation tasks. RainNet was trained to predict continuous precipitation intensities at a lead time of 5min, using several years of quality-controlled weather radar composites provided by the German Weather Service (DWD). That data set covers Germany with a spatial domain of 900km × 900km and has a resolution of 1km in space and 5min in time. Independent verification experiments were carried out on 11 summer precipitation events from 2016 to 2017. In order to achieve a lead time of 1h, a recursive approach was implemented by using RainNet predictions at 5min lead times as model inputs for longer lead times. In the verification experiments, trivial Eulerian persistence and a conventional model based on optical flow served as benchmarks. The latter is available in the rainymotion library and had previously been shown to outperform DWD's operational nowcasting model for the same set of verification events.
RainNet significantly outperforms the benchmark models at all lead times up to 60min for the routine verification metrics mean absolute error (MAE) and the critical success index (CSI) at intensity thresholds of 0.125, 1, and 5mm h⁻¹. However, rainymotion turned out to be superior in predicting the exceedance of higher intensity thresholds (here 10 and 15mm h⁻¹). The limited ability of RainNet to predict heavy rainfall intensities is an undesirable property which we attribute to a high level of spatial smoothing introduced by the model. At a lead time of 5min, an analysis of power spectral density confirmed a significant loss of spectral power at length scales of 16km and below. Obviously, RainNet had learned an optimal level of smoothing to produce a nowcast at 5min lead time. In that sense, the loss of spectral power at small scales is informative, too, as it reflects the limits of predictability as a function of spatial scale. Beyond the lead time of 5min, however, the increasing level of smoothing is a mere artifact – an analogue to numerical diffusion – that is not a property of RainNet itself but of its recursive application. In the context of early warning, the smoothing is particularly unfavorable since pronounced features of intense precipitation tend to get lost over longer lead times. Hence, we propose several options to address this issue in prospective research, including an adjustment of the loss function for model training, model training for longer lead times, and the prediction of threshold exceedance in terms of a binary segmentation task. Furthermore, we suggest additional input data that could help to better identify situations with imminent precipitation dynamics. The model code, pretrained weights, and training data are provided in open repositories as an input for such future studies.
OpenForecast
(2019)
The development and deployment of new operational runoff forecasting systems are a strong focus of the scientific community due to the crucial importance of reliable and timely runoff predictions for early warnings of floods and flashfloods for local businesses and communities. OpenForecast, the first operational runoff forecasting system in Russia, open for public use, is presented in this study. We developed OpenForecast based only on open-source software and data-GR4J hydrological model, ERA-Interim meteorological reanalysis, and ICON deterministic short-range meteorological forecasts. Daily forecasts were generated for two basins in the European part of Russia. Simulation results showed a limited efficiency in reproducing the spring flood of 2019. Although the simulations managed to capture the timing of flood peaks, they failed in estimating flood volume. However, further implementation of the parsimonious data assimilation technique significantly alleviates simulation errors. The revealed limitations of the proposed operational runoff forecasting system provided a foundation to outline its further development and improvement.
Several mechanisms are proposed to be part of the earthquake triggering process, including static stress interactions and dynamic stress transfer. Significant differences of these mechanisms are particularly expected in the spatial distribution of aftershocks. However, testing the different hypotheses is challenging because it requires the consideration of the large uncertainties involved in stress calculations as well as the appropriate consideration of secondary aftershock triggering which is related to stress changes induced by smaller pre- and aftershocks. In order to evaluate the forecast capability of different mechanisms, I take the effect of smaller--magnitude earthquakes into account by using the epidemic type aftershock sequence (ETAS) model where the spatial probability distribution of direct aftershocks, if available, is correlated to alternative source information and mechanisms. Surface shaking, rupture geometry, and slip distributions are tested. As an approximation of the shaking level, ShakeMaps are used which are available in near real-time after a mainshock and thus could be used for first-order forecasts of the spatial aftershock distribution. Alternatively, the use of empirical decay laws related to minimum fault distance is tested and Coulomb stress change calculations based on published and random slip models. For comparison, the likelihood values of the different model combinations are analyzed in the case of several well-known aftershock sequences (1992 Landers, 1999 Hector Mine, 2004 Parkfield). The tests show that the fault geometry is the most valuable information for improving aftershock forecasts. Furthermore, they reveal that static stress maps can additionally improve the forecasts of off--fault aftershock locations, while the integration of ground shaking data could not upgrade the results significantly. In the second part of this work, I focused on a procedure to test the information content of inverted slip models. This allows to quantify the information gain if this kind of data is included in aftershock forecasts. For this purpose, the ETAS model based on static stress changes, which is introduced in part one, is applied. The forecast ability of the models is systematically tested for several earthquake sequences and compared to models using random slip distributions. The influence of subfault resolution and segment strike and dip is tested. Some of the tested slip models perform very good, in that cases almost no random slip models are found to perform better. Contrastingly, for some of the published slip models, almost all random slip models perform better than the published slip model. Choosing a different subfault resolution hardly influences the result, as long the general slip pattern is still reproducible. Whereas different strike and dip values strongly influence the results depending on the standard deviation chosen, which is applied in the process of randomly selecting the strike and dip values.
This thesis work describes a new experimental method for the determination of Mode II (shear) fracture toughness, KIIC of rock and compares the outcome to results from Mode I (tensile) fracture toughness, KIC, testing using the International Society of Rock Mechanics Chevron-Bend method.Critical Mode I fracture growth at ambient conditions was studied by carrying out a series of experiments on a sandstone at different loading rates. The mechanical and microstructural data show that time- and loading rate dependent crack growth occurs in the test material at constant energy requirement.The newly developed set-up for determination of the Mode II fracture toughness is called the Punch-Through Shear test. Notches were drilled to the end surfaces of core samples. An axial load punches down the central cylinder introducing a shear load in the remaining rock bridge. To the mantle of the cores a confining pressure may be applied. The application of confining pressure favours the growth of Mode II fractures as large pressures suppress the growth of tensile cracks.Variation of geometrical parameters leads to an optimisation of the PTS- geometry. Increase of normal load on the shear zone increases KIIC bi-linear. High slope is observed at low confining pressures; at pressures above 30 MPa low slope increase is evident. The maximum confining pressure applied is 70 MPa. The evolution of fracturing and its change with confining pressure is described.The existence of Mode II fracture in rock is a matter of debate in the literature. Comparison of the results from Mode I and Mode II testing, mainly regarding the resulting fracture pattern, and correlation analysis of KIC and KIIC to physico-mechanical parameters emphasised the differences between the response of rock to Mode I and Mode II loading. On the microscale, neither the fractures resulting from Mode I the Mode II loading are pure mode fractures. On macroscopic scale, Mode I and Mode II do exist.
Initiation of subduction following the impingement of a hot buoyant mantle plume is one of the few scenarios that allow breaking the lithosphere and recycling a stagnant lid without requiring any preexisting weak zones. Here, we investigate factors controlling the number and shape of retreating subducting slabs formed by plume-lithosphere interaction. Using 3-D thermomechanical models we show that the deformation regime, which defines formation of single-slab or multi-slab subduction, depends on several parameters such as age of oceanic lithosphere, thickness of the crust and large-scale lithospheric extension rate. Our model results indicate that on present-day Earth multi-slab plume-induced subduction is initiated only if the oceanic lithosphere is relatively young (<30-40 Myr, but >10 Myr), and the crust has a typical thickness of 8 km. In turn, development of single-slab subduction is facilitated by older lithosphere and pre-imposed extensional stresses. In early Earth, plume-lithosphere interaction could have led to formation of either episodic short-lived circular subduction when the oceanic lithosphere was young or to multi-slab subduction when the lithosphere was old.
Antarctic glacier forfields are extreme environments and pioneer sites for ecological succession. The Antarctic continent shows microbial community development as a natural laboratory because of its special environment, geographic isolation and little anthropogenic influence. Increasing temperatures due to global warming lead to enhanced deglaciation processes in cold-affected habitats and new terrain is becoming exposed to soil formation and accessible for microbial colonisation. This study aims to understand the structure and development of glacier forefield bacterial communities, especially how soil parameters impact the microorganisms and how those are adapted to the extreme conditions of the habitat. To this effect, a combination of cultivation experiments, molecular, geophysical and geochemical analysis was applied to examine two glacier forfields of the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica. Culture-independent molecular tools such as terminal restriction length polymorphism (T-RFLP), clone libraries and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) were used to determine bacterial diversity and distribution. Cultivation of yet unknown species was carried out to get insights in the physiology and adaptation of the microorganisms. Adaptation strategies of the microorganisms were studied by determining changes of the cell membrane phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) inventory of an isolated bacterium in response to temperature and pH fluctuations and by measuring enzyme activity at low temperature in environmental soil samples. The two studied glacier forefields are extreme habitats characterised by low temperatures, low water availability and small oligotrophic nutrient pools and represent sites of different bacterial succession in relation to soil parameters. The investigated sites showed microbial succession at an early step of soil formation near the ice tongue in comparison to closely located but rather older and more developed soil from the forefield. At the early step the succession is influenced by a deglaciation-dependent areal shift of soil parameters followed by a variable and prevalently depth-related distribution of the soil parameters that is driven by the extreme Antarctic conditions. The dominant taxa in the glacier forefields are Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria and Chloroflexi. The connection of soil characteristics with bacterial community structure showed that soil parameter and soil formation along the glacier forefield influence the distribution of certain phyla. In the early step of succession the relative undifferentiated bacterial diversity reflects the undifferentiated soil development and has a high potential to shift according to past and present environmental conditions. With progressing development environmental constraints such as water or carbon limitation have a greater influence. Adapting the culturing conditions to the cold and oligotrophic environment, the number of culturable heterotrophic bacteria reached up to 108 colony forming units per gram soil and 148 isolates were obtained. Two new psychrotolerant bacteria, Herbaspirillum psychrotolerans PB1T and Chryseobacterium frigidisoli PB4T, were characterised in detail and described as novel species in the family of Oxalobacteraceae and Flavobacteriaceae, respectively. The isolates are able to grow at low temperatures tolerating temperature fluctuations and they are not specialised to a certain substrate, therefore they are well-adapted to the cold and oligotrophic environment. The adaptation strategies of the microorganisms were analysed in environmental samples and cultures focussing on extracellular enzyme activity at low temperature and PLFA analyses. Extracellular phosphatases (pH 11 and pH 6.5), β-glucosidase, invertase and urease activity were detected in the glacier forefield soils at low temperature (14°C) catalysing the conversion of various compounds providing necessary substrates and may further play a role in the soil formation and total carbon turnover of the habitat. The PLFA analysis of the newly isolated species C. frigidisoli showed that the cold-adapted strain develops different strategies to maintain the cell membrane function under changing environmental conditions by altering the PLFA inventory at different temperatures and pH values. A newly discovered fatty acid, which was not found in any other microorganism so far, significantly increased at decreasing temperature and low pH and thus plays an important role in the adaption of C. frigidisoli. This work gives insights into the diversity, distribution and adaptation mechanisms of microbial communities in oligotrophic cold-affected soils and shows that Antarctic glacier forefields are suitable model systems to study bacterial colonisation in connection to soil formation.
Foreland-basin systems are excellent archives to decipher the feedbacks between surface and tectonic processes in orogens. The sedimentary architecture of a foreland-basin system reflects the balance between tectonic subsidence causing long-term accommodation space and sediment influx corresponding to efficiency of erosion and mass-redistribution processes. In order to explore the effects of climatic and tectonic forcing in such a system, I investigated the Oligo-Miocene foreland-basin sediments of the southern Alborz mountains, an intracontinental orogen in northern Iran, related to the Arabia-Eurasia continental collision. This work includes absolute dating methods such as 40Ar/39Ar and zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology, magnetostratigraphy, sedimentological analysis, sandstone and conglomerate provenance study, carbon and oxygen isotope analysis, and clay mineralogy study. Results show a systematic correlation between coarsening-upward cycles and sediment accumulation rates in the basin on 105 to 106yr time scales. During thrust loading phases, the coarse-grained fraction supplied by the uplifting range is stored in the proximal part of the basin (sedimentary facies retrogradation), while fine-grained sediments are deposited in distal sectors. Variations in sediment provenance during these phases of enhanced tectonic activity give evidence for erosional unroofing phases and/or drainage-reorganization events. In addition, enhanced tectonic activity promoted the growth of topography and associated orographic barrier effects, as demonstrated by sedimentologic indicators and the analysis of stable C and O isotopes from calcareous paleosols and lacustrine/palustrine samples. Extensive progradation of coarse-grained deposits occurs during phases of decreased subsidence, when the coarse-grained fraction supplied by the uplifting range cannot be completely stored in the proximal part of the basin. In this environment, a reduction in basin subsidence is associated with laterally stacked fluvial channel deposits, and is related to intra-foreland uplift, as documented by growth strata, tectonic tilting, and sediment reworking. Increase in sediment accumulation rate associated with progradation of vertically-stacked coarse-grained fluvial channels also occurs. Paleosol O-isotope data shows that this increase is related to wetter climatic phases, suggesting that surface processes are more efficient and exhumation rates increase, giving rise to a positive feedback. Furthermore, isotopic and sedimentologic data show that starting from 10-9 Ma, climate became less arid with an increase in seasonality of precipitation. Because important changes were also recorded in the Mediterranean Sea and Asia at that time, the evidence for climatic variability observed in the Alborz mountains most likely reflects changes in Northern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation patterns. This study has additional implications for the evolution of the Alborz mountains and the Arabia-Eurasia continental collision zone. At the orogenic scale, the locus of deformation did not move steadily southward, but stepped forward and backward since Oligocene time. In particular, from ~ 17.5 to 6.2 Ma the orogen grew by a combination of frontal accretion and wedge-internal deformation on time scales of ca. 0.7 to 2 m.y. Moreover, the provenance data suggest that prior to 10-9 Ma the shortening direction changed from NW-SE to NNE-SSW, in agreement with structural data. On the scale of the entire collision zone, the evolution of the studied basins and adjacent mountain ranges suggests a new geodynamic model for the evolution of the Arabia-Eurasia continental collision zone. Numerous sedimentary basins in the Alborz mountains and in other locations of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone record a change from a tensional (transtensional) to a compressional (transpressional) tectonic setting by ~ 36 Ma. I interpret this to reflect the onset of subduction of the stretched Arabian continental lithosphere beneath central Iran, leading to moderate plate coupling and lower- and upper-plate deformation (soft continental collision). The increase in deformation rates in the southern Alborz mountains from ~ 17.5 Ma suggests that significant upper-plate deformation must have started by the early Miocene most likely in response to an increase in degree of plate coupling. I suggest that this was related to the subduction of thicker Arabian continental lithosphere and the consequent onset of hard continental collision. This model reconciles the apparent lag time of 15-20 m.y between the late Eocene to early Oligocene age for the initial Arabia-Eurasia continental collision and the onset of widespread deformation across the collision zone to the north in early to late Miocene time.
Planetary research is often user-based and requires considerable skill, time, and effort. Unfortunately, self-defined boundary conditions, definitions, and rules are often not documented or not easy to comprehend due to the complexity of research. This makes a comparison to other studies, or an extension of the already existing research, complicated. Comparisons are often distorted, because results rely on different, not well defined, or even unknown boundary conditions. The purpose of this research is to develop a standardized analysis method for planetary surfaces, which is adaptable to several research topics. The method provides a consistent quality of results. This also includes achieving reliable and comparable results and reducing the time and effort of conducting such studies. A standardized analysis method is provided by automated analysis tools that focus on statistical parameters. Specific key parameters and boundary conditions are defined for the tool application. The analysis relies on a database in which all key parameters are stored. These databases can be easily updated and adapted to various research questions. This increases the flexibility, reproducibility, and comparability of the research. However, the quality of the database and reliability of definitions directly influence the results. To ensure a high quality of results, the rules and definitions need to be well defined and based on previously conducted case studies. The tools then produce parameters, which are obtained by defined geostatistical techniques (measurements, calculations, classifications). The idea of an automated statistical analysis is tested to proof benefits but also potential problems of this method. In this study, I adapt automated tools for floor-fractured craters (FFCs) on Mars. These impact craters show a variety of surface features, occurring in different Martian environments, and having different fracturing origins. They provide a complex morphological and geological field of application. 433 FFCs are classified by the analysis tools due to their fracturing process. Spatial data, environmental context, and crater interior data are analyzed to distinguish between the processes involved in floor fracturing. Related geologic processes, such as glacial and fluvial activity, are too similar to be separately classified by the automated tools. Glacial and fluvial fracturing processes are merged together for the classification. The automated tools provide probability values for each origin model. To guarantee the quality and reliability of the results, classification tools need to achieve an origin probability above 50 %. This analysis method shows that 15 % of the FFCs are fractured by intrusive volcanism, 20 % by tectonic activity, and 43 % by water & ice related processes. In total, 75 % of the FFCs are classified to an origin type. This can be explained by a combination of origin models, superposition or erosion of key parameters, or an unknown fracturing model. Those features have to be manually analyzed in detail. Another possibility would be the improvement of key parameters and rules for the classification. This research shows that it is possible to conduct an automated statistical analysis of morphologic and geologic features based on analysis tools. Analysis tools provide additional information to the user and are therefore considered assistance systems.
Studies on the unsustainable use of groundwater resources are still considered incipient since it is frequently a poorly understood and managed, devalued and inadequately protected natural resource. Groundwater Recharge (GWR) is one of the most challenging elements to estimate since it can rarely be measured directly and cannot easily be derived from existing data. To overcome these limitations, many hydro(geo)logists have combined different approaches to estimate large-scale GWR, namely: remote sensing products, such as IMERG product; Water Budget Equation, also in combination with hydrological models, and; Geographic Information System (GIS), using estimation formulas. For intermediary-scale GWR estimation, there exist: Non-invasive Cosmic-Ray Neutron Sensing (CRNS); wireless networks from local soil probes; and soil hydrological models, such as HYDRUS. Accordingly, this PhD thesis aims, on the one hand, to demonstrate a GIS-based model coupling for estimating the GWR distribution on a large scale in tropical wet basins. On the other hand, it aims to use the time series from CRNS and invasive soil moisture probes to inversely calibrate the soil hydraulic properties, and based on this, estimating the intermediary-scale GWR using a soil hydrological model. For such purpose, two tropical wet basins located in a complex sedimentary aquifer in the coastal Northeast region of Brazil were selected. These are the João Pessoa Case Study Area and the Guaraíra Experimental Basin. Several satellite products in the first area were used as input to the GIS-based water budget equation model for estimating the water balance components and GWR in 2016 and 2017. In addition, the point-scale measurement and CRNS data were used in the second area to determine the soil hydraulic properties, and to estimate the GWR in the 2017-2018 and 2018-2019 hydrological years. The resulting values of GWR on large- and intermediary-scale were then compared and validated by the estimates obtained by groundwater table fluctuations. The GWR rates for IMERG- and rain-gauge-based scenarios showed similar coefficients between 68% and 89%, similar mean errors between 30% and 34%, and slightly-different bias between -13% and 11%. The results of GWR rates for soil probes and CRNS soil moisture scenarios ranged from -5.87 to -61.81 cm yr-1, which corresponds to 5% and 38% of the precipitation. The calculations of the mean GWR rates on large-scale, based on remote sensing data, and on intermediary-scale, based on CRNS data, held similar results for the Podzol soil type, namely 17.87% and 17% of the precipitation. It is then concluded that the proposed methodologies allowed for estimating realistically the GWR over the study areas, which can be a ground-breaking step towards improving the water management and decision-making in the Northeast of Brazil.
Soil properties show high heterogeneity at different spatial scales and their correct characterization remains a crucial challenge over large areas. The aim of the study is to quantify the impact of different types of uncertainties that arise from the unresolved soil spatial variability on simulated hydrological states and fluxes. Three perturbation methods are presented for the characterization of uncertainties in soil properties. The methods are applied on the soil map of the upper Neckar catchment (Germany), as an example. The uncertainties are propagated through the distributed mesoscale hydrological model (mHM) to assess the impact on the simulated states and fluxes. The model outputs are analysed by aggregating the results at different spatial and temporal scales. These results show that the impact of the different uncertainties introduced in the original soil map is equivalent when the simulated model outputs are analysed at the model grid resolution (i.e. 500 m). However, several differences are identified by aggregating states and fluxes at different spatial scales (by subcatchments of different sizes or coarsening the grid resolution). Streamflow is only sensitive to the perturbation of long spatial structures while distributed states and fluxes (e.g. soil moisture and groundwater recharge) are only sensitive to the local noise introduced to the original soil properties. A clear identification of the temporal and spatial scale for which finer-resolution soil information is (or is not) relevant is unlikely to be universal. However, the comparison of the impacts on the different hydrological components can be used to prioritize the model improvements in specific applications, either by collecting new measurements or by calibration and data assimilation approaches. In conclusion, the study underlines the importance of a correct characterization of uncertainty in soil properties. With that, soil maps with additional information regarding the unresolved soil spatial variability would provide strong support to hydrological modelling applications.
The Southern Central Andes (33°-36°S) are an excellent natural laboratory to study orogenic deformation processes, where boundary conditions, such as the geometry of the subducted plate, impose an important control on the evolution of the orogen. On the other hand, the South American plate presents a series of heterogeneities that additionally impart control on the mode of deformation. This thesis aims to test the control of this last factor over the construction of the Cenozoic Andean orogenic system.
From the integration of surface and subsurface information in the southern area (34-36°S), the evolution of Andean deformation over the steeply dipping subduction segment was studied. A structural model was developed evaluating the stress state from the Miocene to the present-day and its influence in the migration of magmatic fluids and hydrocarbons. Based on these data, together with the data generated by other researchers in the northern zone of the study area (33-34°S), geodynamic numerical modeling was performed to test the hypothesis of the decisive role of upper-plate heterogeneities in the Andean evolution. Geodynamic codes (LAPEX-2D and ASPECT) which simulate the behavior of materials with elasto-visco-plastic rheologies under deformation, were used. The model results suggest that upper-plate contractional deformation is significantly controlled by the strength of the lithosphere, which is defined by the composition of the upper and lower crust, and by the proportion of lithospheric mantle, which in turn is determined by previous tectonic events. In addition, the previous regional tectono-magmatic events also defined the composition of the crust and its geometry, which is another factor that controls the localization of deformation. Accordingly, with more felsic lower crustal composition, the deformation follows a pure-shear mode, while more mafic compositions induce a simple-shear deformation mode. On the other hand, it was observed that initial lithospheric thickness may fundamentally control the location of deformation, with zones characterized by thin lithosphere are prone to concentrate it. Finally, it was found that an asymmetric lithosphere-astenosphere boundary resulting from corner flow in the mantle wedge of the eastward-directed subduction zone tends to generate east-vergent detachments.
Im Landschaftszustand und in der Landschaftsentwicklung kommen funktionale Beziehungen zwischen dem naturbedingten Energie-, Wasser- und Stoffhaushalt einerseits und den Auswirkungen der Landnutzung andererseits zum Ausdruck. Gegenwärtig verändert der globale Anstieg der bodennahen Temperaturen vielerorts den landschaftlichen Energie-, Wasser- und Stoffhaushalt, wobei besonders in Trockengebieten zu erwarten ist, dass dieser Trend in Verbindung mit einer unangepassten Landnutzung das Regenerationsvermögen der Vegetation einschränkt und zur Zerstörung der Bodendecke führt. Für die Mongolei und für benachbarte Gebiete Asiens sind in Szenarien zur globalen Erwärmung hohe Werte des Temperaturanstiegs prognostiziert worden. Eine globale Einschätzung der anthropogen induzierten Bodendegradation hat diese Region als stark oder extrem stark betroffen eingestuft. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurde im Uvs-Nuur-Becken, das im Nordwesten der Mongolei und damit in einer der trockensten Regionen des Landes gelegen ist, untersucht, wie sich der globale Temperaturanstieg auf der lokalen und regionalen Ebene widerspiegelt und wie der Landschaftshaushalt dabei verändert wird. Die Auswirkungen des sommerlichen Witterungsverlaufes auf den Landschaftszustand sind 1997 bis 1999 an einem Transsekt erfasst worden, das sich zwischen dem Kharkhiraa-Gebirge am Westrand des Beckens und dem See Uvs Nuur im Beckeninneren von den Polsterfluren und Matten der alpinen Stufe über die Gebirgswaldsteppe, die Trockensteppe bis zur Halbwüste erstreckt. An neun Messpunkten wurden witterungsklimatische Daten in Verbindung mit Merkmalen der Vegetation, des Bodens und der Bodenfeuchte aufgenommen. Die im Sommer 1998 gewonnenen Messwerte wurden mit Hilfe einer Clusteranalyse gebündelt und verdichtet. Auf dieser Grundlage konnten landschaftliche Zustandsformen inhaltlich gekennzeichnet, zeitlich eingeordnet und durch Zeit-Verhaltens-Modelle (Stacks) abgebildet werden. Aus den Zeit-Verhaltens-Modellen wird ersichtlich, dass man Zustandsformen, in denen die Hitze und die Trockenheit des Sommers 1998 besonders stark zum Ausdruck kommen, an allen Messpunkten beobachten kann, nimmt man die Station auf dem fast 3.000 m hohen Gipfel des Khukh Uul sowie die grundwasserbeeinflusste Station in unmittelbarer Seenähe aus. In ihrer extremen Form sind Trockenperioden jedoch nur im Beckeninneren und am Fuß der Randgebirge, also in der Halbwüste, in der Trockensteppe und in der Wiesensteppe aufgetreten. Im Bergwald sowie im Bereich der alpinen Matten und Polsterfluren fehlen sie. Am stärksten sind die grundwasserfreien Bereiche der Halbwüste von der Hitze und Niederschlagsarmut des Sommers 1998 betroffen. An vier Fünfteln der Tage des Beobachtungszeitraumes herrscht an diesem Messpunkt extreme Trockenheit. Es fällt entweder gar kein Niederschlag oder nur so wenig, dass der seit dem Frühjahr erschöpfte Bodenwasservorrat nicht aufgefüllt wird. Das Verhältnis zwischen Niederschlag und potenzieller Verdunstung liegt hier bei 1:12. In der Halbwüste zeichnet sich eine fortschreitende Desertifikation ab, zumal hier eine nichtangepasste Weidenutzung dominiert, in der Ziegen eine immer größere Rolle spielen. Dies gilt insbesondere für Bereiche in Siedlungsnähe. Örtlich ist auch der Bestand der Trockensteppe gefährdet, die sich an die Halbwüste zum Beckenrand hin anschließt. Hier ist nicht nur die Viehdichte am höchsten, sondern hier werden auch die meisten unbefestigten Fahrwege wild angelegt und die Bodendecke damit zerstört. Dies kann im Endeffekt zu einem Übergreifen von Prozessen der Desertifikation führen. Aus methodischer Sicht zeigt sich, dass die Kennzeichnung landschaftlicher Zustandsformen durch Zeit-Verhaltens-Modelle die Ermittlung der Auswirkungen von Witterung und Klima auf den Landschaftszustand erleichtert, da sie deren Aussage konzentriert. Zur Interpretation der Ergebnisse ist jedoch ein Rückgriff auf die beschreibende Darstellung der Messwerte notwendig. Die im westlichen Uvs-Nuur-Becken und seinen Randgebirgen angewandte Verfahrensweise ermöglicht es, globale Aussagen zur globalen Erwärmung der Kontinente regional oder lokal zu überprüfen und zu untersetzen."
Surface displacement at volcanic edifices is related to subsurface processes associated with magma movements, fluid transfers within the volcano edifice and gravity-driven deformation processes. Understanding of associated ground displacements is of importance for assessment of volcanic hazards. For example, volcanic unrest is often preceded by surface uplift, caused by magma intrusion and followed by subsidence, after the withdrawal of magma. Continuous monitoring of the surface displacement at volcanoes therefore might allow the forecasting of upcoming eruptions to some extent. In geophysics, the measured surface displacements allow the parameters of possible deformation sources to be estimated through analytical or numerical modeling. This is one way to improve the understanding of subsurface processes acting at volcanoes. Although the monitoring of volcanoes has significantly improved in the last decades (in terms of technical advancements and number of monitored volcanoes), the forecasting of volcanic eruptions remains puzzling. In this work I contribute towards the understanding of the subsurface processes at volcanoes and thus to the improvement of volcano eruption forecasting. I have investigated the displacement field of Llaima volcano in Chile and of Tendürek volcano in East Turkey by using synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR). Through modeling of the deformation sources with the extracted displacement data, it was possible to gain insights into potential subsurface processes occurring at these two volcanoes that had been barely studied before. The two volcanoes, although of very different origin, composition and geometry, both show a complexity of interacting deformation sources. At Llaima volcano, the InSAR technique was difficult to apply, due to the large decorrelation of the radar signal between the acquisition of images. I developed a model-based unwrapping scheme, which allows the production of reliable displacement maps at the volcano that I used for deformation source modeling. The modeling results show significant differences in pre- and post-eruptive magmatic deformation source parameters. Therefore, I conjecture that two magma chambers exist below Llaima volcano: a post-eruptive deep one and a shallow one possibly due to the pre-eruptive ascent of magma. Similar reservoir depths at Llaima have been confirmed by independent petrologic studies. These reservoirs are interpreted to be temporally coupled. At Tendürek volcano I have found long-term subsidence of the volcanic edifice, which can be described by a large, magmatic, sill-like source that is subject to cooling contraction. The displacement data in conjunction with high-resolution optical images, however, reveal arcuate fractures at the eastern and western flank of the volcano. These are most likely the surface expressions of concentric ring-faults around the volcanic edifice that show low magnitudes of slip over a long time. This might be an alternative mechanism for the development of large caldera structures, which are so far assumed to be generated during large catastrophic collapse events. To investigate the potential subsurface geometry and relation of the two proposed interacting sources at Tendürek, a sill-like magmatic source and ring-faults, I have performed a more sophisticated numerical modeling approach. The optimum source geometries show, that the size of the sill-like source was overestimated in the simple models and that it is difficult to determine the dip angle of the ring-faults with surface displacement data only. However, considering physical and geological criteria a combination of outward-dipping reverse faults in the west and inward-dipping normal faults in the east seem to be the most likely. Consequently, the underground structure at the Tendürek volcano consists of a small, sill-like, contracting, magmatic source below the western summit crater that causes a trapdoor-like faulting along the ring-faults around the volcanic edifice. Therefore, the magmatic source and the ring-faults are also interpreted to be temporally coupled. In addition, a method for data reduction has been improved. The modeling of subsurface deformation sources requires only a relatively small number of well distributed InSAR observations at the earth’s surface. Satellite radar images, however, consist of several millions of these observations. Therefore, the large amount of data needs to be reduced by several orders of magnitude for source modeling, to save computation time and increase model flexibility. I have introduced a model-based subsampling approach in particular for heterogeneously-distributed observations. It allows a fast calculation of the data error variance-covariance matrix, also supports the modeling of time dependent displacement data and is, therefore, an alternative to existing methods.
John Birks
(2015)
We describe the career of John Birks as a pioneering scientist who has, over a career spanning five decades, transformed palaeoecology from a largely descriptive to a rigorous quantitative science relevant to contemporary questions in ecology and environmental change. We review his influence on students and colleagues not only at Cambridge and Bergen Universities, his places of primary employment, but also on individuals and research groups in Europe and North America. We also introduce the collection of papers that we have assembled in his honour. The papers are written by his former students and close colleagues and span many of the areas of palaeoecology to which John himself has made major contributions. These include the relationship between ecology and palaeoecology, late-glacial and Holocene palaeoecology, ecological succession, climate change and vegetation history, the role of palaeoecological techniques in reconstructing and understanding the impact of human activity on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and numerical analysis of multivariate palaeoecological data.
Local Orders, Global Chaos
(1999)
Black shales are sedimentary rocks with a high content of organic carbon, which leads to a dark grayish to black color. Due to their potential to contain oil or gas, black shales are of great interest for the support of the worldwide energy supply. An integrated seismic investigation of the Lower Palaeozoic black shales was carried out at the Danish island Bornholm to locate the shallow-lying Alum Shale layer and its surrounding formations and to characterize its potential as a source rock. Therefore, two seismic experiments at a total of three crossing profiles were carried out in October 2010 and in June 2012 in the southern part of the island. Two different active measurements were conducted with either a weight drop source or a minivibrator. Additionally, the ambient noise field was recorded at the study location over a time interval of about one day, and also a laboratory analysis of borehole samples was carried out. The seismic profiles were positioned as close as possible to two scientific boreholes which were used for comparative purposes. The seismic field data was analyzed with traveltime tomography, surface wave inversion and seismic interferometry to obtain the P-wave and S-wave velocity models of the subsurface. The P-wave velocity models which were determined for all three profiles clearly locate the Alum Shale layer between the Komstad Limestone layer on top and the Læså Sandstone Formation at the base of the models. The black shale layer has P-wave velocities around 3 km/s which are lower compared to the adjacent formations. Due to a very good agreement of the sonic log and the vertical velocity profiles of the two seismic lines, which are directly crossing the borehole where the sonic log was conducted, the reliability of the traveltime tomography is proven. A correlation of the seismic velocities with the content of organic carbon is an important task for the characterization of the reservoir properties of a black shale formation. It is not possible without calibration but in combination with a full 2D tomographic image of the subsurface it gives the subsurface distribution of the organic material. The S-wave model obtained with surface wave inversion of the vibroseis data of one of the profiles images the Alum Shale layer also very well with S-wave velocities around 2 km/s. Although individual 1D velocity models for each of the source positions were determined, the subsurface S-wave velocity distribution is very uniform with a good match between the single models. A really new approach described here is the application of seismic interferometry to a really small study area and a quite short time interval. Also new is the selective procedure of only using time windows with the best crosscorrelation signals to achieve the final interferograms. Due to the small scale of the interferometry even P-wave signals can be observed in the final crosscorrelations. In the laboratory measurements the seismic body waves were recorded for different pressure and temperature stages. Therefore, samples of different depths of the Alum Shale were available from one of the scientific boreholes at the study location. The measured velocities have a high variance with changing pressure or temperature. Recordings with wave propagation both parallel and perpendicular to the bedding of the samples reveal a great amount of anisotropy for the P-wave velocity, whereas the S-wave velocity is almost independent of the wave direction. The calculated velocity ratio is also highly anisotropic with very low values for the perpendicular samples and very high values for the parallel ones. Interestingly, the laboratory velocities of the perpendicular samples are comparable to the velocities of the field experiments indicating that the field measurements are sensitive to wave propagation in vertical direction. The velocity ratio is also calculated with the P-wave and S-wave velocity models of the field experiments. Again, the Alum Shale can be clearly separated from the adjacent formations because it shows overall very low vP/vS ratios around 1.4. The very low velocity ratio indicates the content of gas in the black shale formation. With the combination of all the different methods described here, a comprehensive interpretation of the seismic response of the black shale layer can be made and the hydrocarbon source rock potential can be estimated.
Temperature is a key factor controlling plant growth and vitality in the temperate climates of the mid-latitudes like in vast parts of the European continent. Beyond the effect of average conditions, the timings and magnitudes of temperature extremes play a particularly crucial role, which needs to be better understood in the context of projected future rises in the frequency and/or intensity of such events. In this work, we employ event coincidence analysis (ECA) to quantify the likelihood of simultaneous occurrences of extremes in daytime land surface temperature anomalies (LSTAD) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). We perform this analysis for entire Europe based upon remote sensing data, differentiating between three periods corresponding to different stages of plant development during the growing season. In addition, we analyze the typical elevation and land cover type of the regions showing significantly large event coincidences rates to identify the most severely affected vegetation types. Our results reveal distinct spatio-temporal impact patterns in terms of extraordinarily large co-occurrence rates between several combinations of temperature and NDVI extremes. Croplands are among the most frequently affected land cover types, while elevation is found to have only a minor effect on the spatial distribution of corresponding extreme weather impacts. These findings provide important insights into the vulnerability of European terrestrial ecosystems to extreme temperature events and demonstrate how event-based statistics like ECA can provide a valuable perspective on environmental nexuses.
Inhalt: 0 Einleitung 1 Theoretische Überlegungen 1.1 Widerspruch, Konflikt, Regulation 1.2 Regulation und Nachhaltigkeit 1.3 Die „Scale“-Problematik 2 Naturverständnisse und Naturverhältnisse im regionalen Nachhaltigkeitsdiskurs 2.1 Die räumliche Struktur Hamburgs 2.2 Bilder der Stadt – Die „Natur“ des Entwicklungsprogramms der Region Hamburg 2.3 Sustaining nature: Naturbilder für soziale Gerechtigkeit und Wirtschaftswachstum 3 Post-fordistische Transformation und Nachhaltigkeit: Fallstudie der Region Hamburg 3.1 Die Industrialisierungsstrategie der 1960er und 1970er Jahre 3.2 „Unternehmen Hamburg“ und die Ökologiebewegung 3.3 Nachhaltigkeit als Konfliktterrain 4 Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen
Climatic variations and human activity now and increasingly in the future cause land cover changes and introduce perturbations in the terrestrial carbon reservoirs in vegetation, soil and detritus. Optical remote sensing and in particular Imaging Spectroscopy has shown the potential to quantify land surface parameters over large areas, which is accomplished by taking advantage of the characteristic interactions of incident radiation and the physico-chemical properties of a material. The objective of this thesis is to quantify key soil parameters, including soil organic carbon, using field and Imaging Spectroscopy. Organic carbon, iron oxides and clay content are selected to be analyzed to provide indicators for ecosystem function in relation to land degradation, and additionally to facilitate a quantification of carbon inventories in semiarid soils. The semiarid Albany Thicket Biome in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is chosen as study site. It provides a regional example for a semiarid ecosystem that currently undergoes land changes due to unadapted management practices and furthermore has to face climate change induced land changes in the future. The thesis is divided in three methodical steps. Based on reflectance spectra measured in the field and chemically determined constituents of the upper topsoil, physically based models are developed to quantify soil organic carbon, iron oxides and clay content. Taking account of the benefits limitations of existing methods, the approach is based on the direct application of known diagnostic spectral features and their combination with multivariate statistical approaches. It benefits from the collinearity of several diagnostic features and a number of their properties to reduce signal disturbances by influences of other spectral features. In a following step, the acquired hyperspectral image data are prepared for an analysis of soil constituents. The data show a large spatial heterogeneity that is caused by the patchiness of the natural vegetation in the study area that is inherent to most semiarid landscapes. Spectral mixture analysis is performed and used to deconvolve non-homogenous pixels into their constituent components. For soil dominated pixels, the subpixel information is used to remove the spectral influence of vegetation and to approximate the pure spectral signature coming from the soil. This step is an integral part when working in natural non-agricultural areas where pure bare soil pixels are rare. It is identified as the largest benefit within the multi-stage methodology, providing the basis for a successful and unbiased prediction of soil constituents from hyperspectral imagery. With the proposed approach it is possible (1) to significantly increase the spatial extent of derived information of soil constituents to areas with about 40 % vegetation coverage and (2) to reduce the influence of materials such as vegetation on the quantification of soil constituents to a minimum. Subsequently, soil parameter quantities are predicted by the application of the feature-based soil prediction models to the maps of locally approximated soil signatures. Thematic maps showing the spatial distribution of the three considered soil parameters in October 2009 are produced for the Albany Thicket Biome of South Africa. The maps are evaluated for their potential to detect erosion affected areas as effects of land changes and to identify degradation hot spots in regard to support local restoration efforts. A regional validation, carried out using available ground truth sites, suggests remaining factors disturbing the correlation of spectral characteristics and chemical soil constituents. The approach is developed for semiarid areas in general and not adapted to specific conditions in the study area. All processing steps of the developed methodology are implemented in software modules, where crucial steps of the workflow are fully automated. The transferability of the methodology is shown for simulated data of the future EnMAP hyperspectral satellite. Soil parameters are successfully predicted from these data despite intense spectral mixing within the lower spatial resolution EnMAP pixels. This study shows an innovative approach to use Imaging Spectroscopy for mapping of key soil constituents, including soil organic carbon, for large areas in a non-agricultural ecosystem and under consideration of a partially vegetation coverage. It can contribute to a better assessment of soil constituents that describe ecosystem processes relevant to detect and monitor land changes. The maps further provide an assessment of the current carbon inventory in soils, valuable for carbon balances and carbon mitigation products.
Hyperspectral remote sensing of the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of low Arctic vegetation
(2019)
Arctic tundra ecosystems are experiencing warming twice the global average and Arctic vegetation is responding in complex and heterogeneous ways. Shifting productivity, growth, species composition, and phenology at local and regional scales have implications for ecosystem functioning as well as the global carbon and energy balance. Optical remote sensing is an effective tool for monitoring ecosystem functioning in this remote biome. However, limited field-based spectral characterization of the spatial and temporal heterogeneity limits the accuracy of quantitative optical remote sensing at landscape scales. To address this research gap and support current and future satellite missions, three central research questions were posed:
• Does canopy-level spectral variability differ between dominant low Arctic vegetation communities and does this variability change between major phenological phases?
• How does canopy-level vegetation colour images recorded with high and low spectral resolution devices relate to phenological changes in leaf-level photosynthetic pigment concentrations?
• How does spatial aggregation of high spectral resolution data from the ground to satellite scale influence low Arctic tundra vegetation signatures and thereby what is the potential of upcoming hyperspectral spaceborne systems for low Arctic vegetation characterization?
To answer these questions a unique and detailed database was assembled. Field-based canopy-level spectral reflectance measurements, nadir digital photographs, and photosynthetic pigment concentrations of dominant low Arctic vegetation communities were acquired at three major phenological phases representing early, peak and late season. Data were collected in 2015 and 2016 in the Toolik Lake Research Natural Area located in north central Alaska on the North Slope of the Brooks Range. In addition to field data an aerial AISA hyperspectral image was acquired in the late season of 2016. Simulations of broadband Sentinel-2 and hyperspectral Environmental and Mapping Analysis Program (EnMAP) satellite reflectance spectra from ground-based reflectance spectra as well as simulations of EnMAP imagery from aerial hyperspectral imagery were also obtained.
Results showed that canopy-level spectral variability within and between vegetation communities differed by phenological phase. The late season was identified as the most discriminative for identifying many dominant vegetation communities using both ground-based and simulated hyperspectral reflectance spectra. This was due to an overall reduction in spectral variability and comparable or greater differences in spectral reflectance between vegetation communities in the visible near infrared spectrum.
Red, green, and blue (RGB) indices extracted from nadir digital photographs and pigment-driven vegetation indices extracted from ground-based spectral measurements showed strong significant relationships. RGB indices also showed moderate relationships with chlorophyll and carotenoid pigment concentrations. The observed relationships with the broadband RGB channels of the digital camera indicate that vegetation colour strongly influences the response of pigment-driven spectral indices and digital cameras can track the seasonal development and degradation of photosynthetic pigments.
Spatial aggregation of hyperspectral data from the ground to airborne, to simulated satel-lite scale was influenced by non-photosynthetic components as demonstrated by the distinct shift of the red edge to shorter wavelengths. Correspondence between spectral reflectance at the three scales was highest in the red spectrum and lowest in the near infra-red. By artificially mixing litter spectra at different proportions to ground-based spectra, correspondence with aerial and satellite spectra increased. Greater proportions of litter were required to achieve correspondence at the satellite scale.
Overall this thesis found that integrating multiple temporal, spectral, and spatial data is necessary to monitor the complexity and heterogeneity of Arctic tundra ecosystems. The identification of spectrally similar vegetation communities can be optimized using non-peak season hyperspectral data leading to more detailed identification of vegetation communities. The results also highlight the power of vegetation colour to link ground-based and satellite data. Finally, a detailed characterization non-photosynthetic ecosystem components is crucial for accurate interpretation of vegetation signals at landscape scales.
Einführung
(2006)
Wieder zu lesen
(2003)
Rezensierte Werke: Stegmann, Bernd-Achim: Großstadt im Image : eine wahrnehmungsgeographische Studie zu raumbezogenen Images und zum Imagemarketing in Printmedien am Beispiel Kölns und seiner Stadtviertel / Bernd-Achim Stegmann. - 1. Aufl. - Köln : Geograph. Inst. der Univ., 1997. - XII, 219 S. : Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. - (Kölner geographische Arbeiten ; 68) Zugl.: Köln, Univ., Diss., 1995 Körner, Wilfried: Der Frankfurter Grüngürtel als sozialer Raum : Diskurse, Raumbilder und Netzwerke - das Beispiel Sossenheim / von Wilfried Körner. - Frankfurt a.M. : Inst. für Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der J.-W.-Goethe-Univ., 1998. - 152 S. : Ill., Ktn. - (Materialien / Institut für Kulturgeographie, Stadt- und Regionalforschung der J.W. Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main ; 23) Nebent.: Frankfurter Grüngürtel ISBN 3-923218-16-8 Schüttemeyer, Anke: Eigen- und Fremdimage der Stadt Bonn : eine empirische Untersuchung / Anke Schüttemeyer. Geographisches Institut, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn. - Bonn : Geograph. Inst., Lehrstuhl Grotz, 1998. - 109 S. : graph. Darst., Kt. - (Bonner Beiträge zur Geographie ; H. 9) Ganser, Karl: Liebe auf den zweiten Blick : Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park / Karl Ganser. - Dortmund : Harenberg, 1999. - 223 S. : Ill.; Kt. ISBN 3-611-00824-9 Kunst setzt Zeichen : Landmarken-Kunst ; Ausstellung vom 1. Mai bis Oktober 1999 in der Ludwig Galerie Schloss Oberhausen / hrsg. von Peter Pachnicke und Bernhard Mensch. - Oberhausen : Ludwig Galerie Schloß Oberhausen, 1999. - 213 S. : zahlr. Ill. ISBN 3-932236-07-6 Ausstellung vom 14. April bis 1. August 1999 im Rheinischen Industriemuseum Oberhausen / Daniel Stemmrich, Uwe Sülflohn (Red.). - Heidelberg, 1999. - 202 S. - (Schriften des Rheinischen Industriemuseums ; Bd. 16)
Rezensiertes Werk: Ruhrstadt - Die andere Metropole : [ein Beitrag zum Projekt "HISTORAMA Ruhr 2000, Rückblick auf das Industriezeitalter] / von Gerd Willamowski ... Hrsg. für den Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet. [Konzeption und Projektleitung: Manfred Bourrée]. - 1. Aufl. - Essen : Klartext-Verl., 2000. - 655 S. : zahlr. Ill., Kt. ISBN 3-88474-895-5*Gb.
Rezensiertes Werk: Basten, Ludger: Postmoderner Urbanismus : Gestaltung in der städtischen Peripherie / Ludger Basten. - Münster : LIT, 2005. - X, 363 S. : Ill. - ( Schriften des Arbeitskreises Stadtzukünfte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geographie ; 1) Zugl.: Bochum, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2005 ISBN 3-8258-8902-5
Exploring elections features from a geographical perspective is the focus of this study. Its primary objective is to develop a scientific approach based on geoinformation technology (GIT) that promotes deeper understanding how geographical settings affect the spatial and temporal variations of voting behaviour and election outcomes. For this purpose, the five parliamentary elections (1991-2005) following the political turnaround in 1990 in the South East European reform country Albania have been selected as a case study. Elections, like other social phenomena that do not develop uniformly over a territory, inherit a spatial dimension. Despite of fact that elections have been researched by various scientific disciplines ranging from political science to geography, studies that incorporate their spatial dimension are still limited in number and approaches. Consequently, the methodologies needed to generate an integrated knowledge on many facets that constitute election features are lacking. This study addresses characteristics and interactions of the essential elements involved in an election process. Thus, the baseline of the approach presented here is the exploration of relations between three entities: electorate (political and sociodemographic features), election process (electoral system and code) and place (environment where voters reside). To express this interaction the concept of electoral pattern is introduced. Electoral patterns are defined by the study as the final view of election results, chiefly in tabular and/or map form, generated by the complex interaction of social, economic, juridical, and spatial features of the electorate, which has occurred at a specific time and in a particular geographical location. GIT methods of geoanalysis and geovisualization are used to investigate the characteristics of electoral patterns in their spatial and temporal distribution. Aggregate-level data modelled in map form were used to analyse and visualize the spatial distribution of election patterns components and relations. The spatial dimension of the study is addressed in the following three main relations: One, the relation between place and electorate and its expression through the social, demographic and economic features of the electorate resulting in the profile of the electorate’s context; second, the electorate-election interaction which forms the baseline to explore the perspective of local contextual effects in voting behaviour and election results; third, the relation between geographical location and election outcomes reflecting the implication of determining constituency boundaries on election results. To address the above relations, three types of variables: geo, independent and dependent, have been elaborated and two models have been created. The Data Model, developed in a GIS environment, facilitates structuring of election data in order to perform spatial analysis. The peculiarity of electoral patterns – a multidimensional array that contains information on three variables, stored in data layers of dissimilar spatial units of reference and scales of value measurement – prohibit spatial analysis based on the original source data. To perform a joint spatial analysis it is therefore mandatory to restructure the spatial units of reference while preserving their semantic content. In this operation, all relevant electoral as well as socio-demographic data referenced to different administrative spatial entities are re-referenced to uniform grid cells as virtual spatial units of reference. Depending on the scale of data acquisition and map presentation, a cell width of 0.5 km has been determined. The resulting fine grid forms the basis of subsequent data analyses and correlations. Conversion of the original vector data layers into target raster layers allows for unification of spatial units, at the same time retaining the existing level of detail of the data (variables, uniform distribution over space). This in turn facilitates the integration of the variables studied and the performance of GIS-based spatial analysis. In addition, conversion to raster format makes it possible to assign new values to the original data, which are based on a common scale eliminating existing differences in scale of measurement. Raster format operations of the type described are well-established data analysis techniques in GIT, yet they have rarely been employed to process and analyse electoral data. The Geovisualization Model, developed in a cartographic environment, complements the Data Model. As an analog graphic model it facilitates efficient communication and exploration of geographical information through cartographic visualization. Based on this model, 52 choropleth maps have been generated. They represent the outcome of the GIS-based electoral data analysis. The analog map form allows for in-depth visual analysis and interpretation of the distribution and correlation of the electoral data studied. For researchers, decision makers and a wider public the maps provide easy-to-access information on and promote easy-to-understand insight into the spatial dimension, regional variation and resulting structures of the electoral patterns defined.
Causes for slow weathering and erosion in the steep, warm, monsoon-subjected Highlands of Sri Lanka
(2018)
In the Highlands of Sri Lanka, erosion and chemical weathering rates are among the lowest for global mountain denudation. In this tropical humid setting, highly weathered deep saprolite profiles have developed from high-grade metamorphic charnockite during spheroidal weathering of the bedrock. The spheroidal weathering produces rounded corestones and spalled rindlets at the rock-saprolite interface. I used detailed textural, mineralogical, chemical, and electron-microscopic (SEM, FIB, TEM) analyses to identify the factors limiting the rate of weathering front advance in the profile, the sequence of weathering reactions, and the underlying mechanisms. The first mineral attacked by weathering was found to be pyroxene initiated by in situ Fe oxidation, followed by in situ biotite oxidation. Bulk dissolution of the primary minerals is best described with a dissolution – re-precipitation process, as no chemical gradients towards the mineral surface and sharp structural boundaries are observed at the nm scale. Only the local oxidation in pyroxene and biotite is better described with an ion by ion process. The first secondary phases are oxides and amorphous precipitates from which secondary minerals (mainly smectite and kaolinite) form. Only for biotite direct solid state transformation to kaolinite is likely. The initial oxidation of pyroxene and biotite takes place in locally restricted areas and is relatively fast: log J = -11 molmin/(m2 s). However, calculated corestone-scale mineral oxidation rates are comparable to corestone-scale mineral dissolution rates: log R = -13 molpx/(m2 s) and log R = -15 molbt/(m2 s). The oxidation reaction results in a volume increase. Volumetric calculations suggest that this observed oxidation leads to the generation of porosity due to the formation of micro-fractures in the minerals and the bedrock allowing for fluid transport and subsequent dissolution of plagioclase. At the scale of the corestone, this fracture reaction is responsible for the larger fractures that lead to spheroidal weathering and to the formation of rindlets. Since these fractures have their origin from the initial oxidational induced volume increase, oxidation is the rate limiting parameter for weathering to take place. The ensuing plagioclase weathering leads to formation of high secondary porosity in the corestone over a distance of only a few cm and eventually to the final disaggregation of bedrock to saprolite. As oxidation is the first weathering reaction, the supply of O2 is a rate-limiting factor for chemical weathering. Hence, the supply of O2 and its consumption at depth connects processes at the weathering front with erosion at the surface in a feedback mechanism. The strength of the feedback depends on the relative weight of advective versus diffusive transport of O2 through the weathering profile. The feedback will be stronger with dominating diffusive transport. The low weathering rate ultimately depends on the transport of O2 through the whole regolith, and on lithological factors such as low bedrock porosity and the amount of Fe-bearing primary minerals. In this regard the low-porosity charnockite with its low content of Fe(II) bearing minerals impedes fast weathering reactions. Fresh weatherable surfaces are a pre-requisite for chemical weathering. However, in the case of the charnockite found in the Sri Lankan Highlands, the only process that generates these surfaces is the fracturing induced by oxidation. Tectonic quiescence in this region and low pre-anthropogenic erosion rate (attributed to a dense vegetation cover) minimize the rejuvenation of the thick and cohesive regolith column, and lowers weathering through the feedback with erosion.
Starkregen in Berlin
(2021)
In den Sommern der Jahre 2017 und 2019 kam es in Berlin an mehreren Orten zu Überschwemmungen in Folge von Starkregenereignissen. In beiden Jahren führte dies zu erheblichen Beeinträchtigungen im Alltag der Berliner:innen sowie zu hohen Sachschäden. Eine interdisziplinäre Taskforce des DFG-Graduiertenkollegs NatRiskChange untersuchte (1) die meteorologischen Eigenschaften zweier besonders eindrücklicher Unwetter, sowie (2) die Vulnerabilität der Berliner Bevölkerung gegenüber Starkregen.
Eine vergleichende meteorologische Rekonstruktion der Starkregenereignisse von 2017 und 2019 ergab deutliche Unterschiede in der Entstehung und den Überschreitungswahrscheinlichkeiten der beiden Unwetter. So war das Ereignis von 2017 mit einer relativ großen räumlichen Ausdehnung und langer Dauer ein untypisches Starkregenereignis, während es sich bei dem Unwetter von 2019 um ein typisches, kurzzeitiges Starkregenereignis mit ausgeprägter räumlicher Heterogenität handelte. Eine anschließende statistische Analyse zeigte, dass das Ereignis von 2017 für längere Niederschlagsdauern (>=24 h) als großflächiges Extremereignis mit Überschreitungswahrscheinlichkeiten von unter 1 % einzuordnen ist (d.h. Wiederkehrperioden >=100 Jahre). Im Jahr 2019 wurden dagegen ähnliche Überschreitungswahrscheinlichkeiten nur lokal und für kürzere Zeiträume (1-2 h) berechnet.
Die Vulnerabilitätsanalyse basiert auf einer von April bis Juni 2020 in Berlin durchgeführten Onlinebefragung. Diese richtete sich an Personen, die bereits von vergangenen Starkregenereignissen betroffen waren und thematisierte das Schadensereignis selbst, daraus entstandene Beeinträchtigungen und Schäden, Risikowahrnehmung sowie Notfall- und Vorsorgemaßnahmen. Die erhobenen Umfragedaten (n=102) beziehen sich vornehmlich auf die Ereignisse von 2017 und 2019 und zeigen, dass die Berliner Bevölkerung sowohl im Alltag (z.B. bei der Beschaffung von Lebensmitteln) als auch im eigenen Haushalt (z.B. durch Überschwemmungsschäden) von den Unwettern beeinträchtigt war. Zudem deuteten die Antworten der Betroffenen auf Möglichkeiten hin, die Vulnerabilität der Gesellschaft gegenüber Starkregen weiter zu reduzieren - etwa durch die Unterstützung besonders betroffener Gruppen (z.B. Pflegende), durch gezielte Informationskampagnen zum Schutz vor Starkregen oder durch die Erhöhung der Reichweite von Unwetterwarnungen. Eine statistische Analyse zur Effektivität privater Notfall- und Vorsorgemaßnahmen auf Grundlage der Umfragedaten bestätigte vorherige Studienergebnisse.
So gab es Anhaltspunkte dafür, dass durch das Umsetzen von Vorsorgemaßnahmen wie beispielsweise das Installieren von Rückstauklappen, Barriere-Systemen oder Pumpen Starkregenschäden reduziert werden können.
Die Ergebnisse dieses Berichts unterstreichen die Notwendigkeit für ein integriertes Starkregenrisikomanagment, das die Risikokomponenten Gefährdung, Vulnerabilität und Exposition ganzheitlich und auf mehreren Ebenen (z.B. staatlich, kommunal, privat) betrachtet.
In this work, an approach of paleoclimate reconstruction for tropical East Africa is presented. After giving a short summary of modern climate conditions in the tropics and the East African climate peculiarity, the potential of reconstructing climate from paleolake sediments is discussed. As demonstrated, the hydrologic sensitivity of high-elevated closed-basin lakes in the Central Kenya Rift yields valuable guaranties for the establishment of long-term climate records. Temporal fluctuations of the limnological characteristics saved in the lake sediments are used to define variations in the Quaternary climate history. Based on diatom analyses in radiocarbon- and 40Ar/39Ar-dated sediments, a chronology of paleoecologic fluctuations is developed for the Central Kenya Rift -lakes Nakuru, Elmenteita and Naivasha. At least during the penultimate interglacial (around 140 to 60 kyr BP) and during the last interglacial (around 12 to 4 kyr BP), these lakes experienced several transgression-regression cycles on time intervals of about 11,000 years. Additionally, a long-term trend of lake evolution is found suggesting the general succession from deep freshwater lakes towards more saline waters during the last million years. Using ecologic transfer functions and a simple lake-balance model, the observed paleohydrologic fluctuations are linked to potential precipitation-evaporation changes in the lake basins. Though also tectonic influences on the drainage pattern and the effect of varied seepage are investigated, it can be shown that already a small increase in precipitation of about 30±10 % may have affected the hydrologic budget of the intra-rift lakes within the reconstructed range. The findings of this study help to assess the natural climate variability of East Africa. They furthermore reflect the sensitivity of the Central Kenya Rift -lakes to fluctuations of large-scale climate parameters, such as solar radiation and sea-surface temperatures of the Indian Ocean.
Change points in time series are perceived as heterogeneities in the statistical or dynamical characteristics of the observations. Unraveling such transitions yields essential information for the understanding of the observed system’s intrinsic evolution and potential external influences. A precise detection of multiple changes is therefore of great importance for various research disciplines, such as environmental sciences, bioinformatics and economics. The primary purpose of the detection approach introduced in this thesis is the investigation of transitions underlying direct or indirect climate observations. In order to develop a diagnostic approach capable to capture such a variety of natural processes, the generic statistical features in terms of central tendency and dispersion are employed in the light of Bayesian inversion. In contrast to established Bayesian approaches to multiple changes, the generic approach proposed in this thesis is not formulated in the framework of specialized partition models of high dimensionality requiring prior specification, but as a robust kernel-based approach of low dimensionality employing least informative prior distributions.
First of all, a local Bayesian inversion approach is developed to robustly infer on the location and the generic patterns of a single transition. The analysis of synthetic time series comprising changes of different observational evidence, data loss and outliers validates the performance, consistency and sensitivity of the inference algorithm. To systematically investigate time series for multiple changes, the Bayesian inversion is extended to a kernel-based inference approach. By introducing basic kernel measures, the weighted kernel inference results are composed into a proxy probability to a posterior distribution of multiple transitions. The detection approach is applied to environmental time series from the Nile river in Aswan and the weather station Tuscaloosa, Alabama comprising documented changes. The method’s performance confirms the approach as a powerful diagnostic tool to decipher multiple changes underlying direct climate observations.
Finally, the kernel-based Bayesian inference approach is used to investigate a set of complex terrigenous dust records interpreted as climate indicators of the African region of the Plio-Pleistocene period. A detailed inference unravels multiple transitions underlying the indirect climate observations, that are interpreted as conjoint changes. The identified conjoint changes coincide with established global climate events. In particular, the two-step transition associated to the establishment of the modern Walker-Circulation contributes to the current discussion about the influence of paleoclimate changes on the environmental conditions in tropical and subtropical Africa at around two million years ago.
Carbonates play a key role in the chemistry and dynamics of our planet. They are directly connected to the CO2 budget of our atmosphere and have a great impact on the deep carbon cycle. Moreover, recent studies have shown that carbonates are stable along the geothermal gradient down to Earth's lower mantle conditions, changing their crystal structure and related properties. Subducted carbonates may also react with silicates to form new phases. These reactions will redistribute elements, such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), but also trace elements, that are carried by the carbonates. The trace elements of most interest are strontium (Sr) and rare earth elements (REE) which have been found to be important constituents in the composition of the primitive lower mantle and in mineral inclusions found in super-deep diamonds. However, the stability of carbonates in presence of mantle silicates at relevant temperatures is far from being well understood. Related to this, very little is known about distribution processes of trace elements between carbonates and mantle silicates. To shed light on these processes, we studied reactions between Sr- and REE-containing CaCO3 and Mg/Fe-bearing silicates of the system (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 - (Mg,Fe)SiO3 at high pressure and high temperature using synchrotron radiation based μ-X-ray diffraction (μ-XRD) and μ-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) with μm-resolution in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell. X-ray diffraction is used to derive the structural changes of the phase reactions whereas X-ray fluorescence gives information on the chemical changes in the sample. In-situ experiments at high pressure and high temperature were performed at beamline P02.2 at PETRA III (Hamburg, Germany) and at beamline ID27 at ESRF (Grenoble, France). In addition to μ-XRD and μ-XRF, ex-situ measurements were made on the recovered sample material using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and provided further insights into the reaction kinetics of carbonate-silicate reactions.
Our investigations show that CaCO3 is unstable in presence of mantle silicates above 1700 K and a reaction takes place in which magnesite plus CaSiO3-perovskite are formed. In addition, we observed that a high content of iron in the carbonate-silicate system favours dolomite formation during the reaction. The subduction of natural carbonates with significant amounts of Sr leads to a comprehensive investigation of the stability not only of CaCO3 phases in contact with mantle silicates but also of SrCO3 (and of Sr-bearing CaCO3). We found that SrCO3 reacts with (Mg,Fe)SiO3-perovskite to form magnesite and gained evidence for the formation of SrSiO3-perovskite.
To complement our study on the stability of SrCO3 at conditions of the Earth's lower mantle, we performed powder X-ray diffraction and single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments at ambient temperature and up to 49 GPa. We observed a transformation from SrCO3-I into a new high-pressure phase SrCO3-II at around 26 GPa with Pmmn crystal structure and a bulk modulus of 103(10) GPa. This information is essential to fully understand the phase behaviour and stability of carbonates in the Earth's lower mantle and to elucidate the possibility of introducing Sr into mantle silicates by carbonate-silicate reactions.
Simultaneous recording of μ-XRD and μ-XRF in the μm-range over the heated areas provides spatial information not only about phase reactions but also on the elemental redistribution during the reactions. A comparison of the spatial intensity distribution of the XRF signal before and after heating indicates a change in the elemental distribution of Sr and an increase in Sr-concentration was found around the newly formed SrSiO3-perovskite. With the help of additional TEM analyses on the quenched sample material the elemental redistribution was studied at a sub-micrometer scale. Contrary to expectations from combined μ-XRD and μ-XRF measurements, we found that La and Eu were not incorporated into the silicate phases, instead they tend to form either isolated oxide phases (e.g. Eu2O3, La2O3) or hydroxyl-bastnäsite (La(CO3)(OH)). In addition, we observed the transformation from (Mg,Fe)SiO3-perovskite to low-pressure clinoenstatite during pressure release. The monoclinic structure (P21/c) of this phase allows the incorporation of Ca as shown by additional EDX analyses and, to a minor extent, Sr too.
Based on our experiments, we can conclude that a detection of the trace elements in-situ at high pressure and high temperature remains challenging. However, our first findings imply that silicates may incorporate the trace elements provided by the carbonates and indicate that carbonates may have a major effect on the trace element contents of mantle phases.
Submerged sequences of marine terraces potentially provide crucial information of past sea-level positions. However, the distribution and characteristics of drowned marine terrace sequences are poorly known at a global scale. Using bathymetric data and novel mapping and modeling techniques, we studied a submerged sequence of marine terraces in the Bay of Biscay with the objective to identify the distribution and morphologies of submerged marine terraces and the timing and conditions that allowed their formation and preservation. To accomplish the objectives a high-resolution bathymetry (5 m) was analyzed using Geographic Information Systems and TerraceM(R). The successive submerged terraces were identified using a Surface Classification Model, which linearly combines the slope and the roughness of the surface to extract fossil sea-cliffs and fossil rocky shore platforms. For that purpose, contour and hillshaded maps were also analyzed. Then, shoreline angles, a geomorphic marker located at the intersection between the fossil sea-cliff and platform, were mapped analyzing swath profiles perpendicular to the isobaths. Most of the submerged strandlines are irregularly preserved throughout the continental shelf. In summary, 12 submerged terraces with their shoreline angles between approximately: -13 m (T1), -30 and -32 m (T2), -34 and 41 m (T3), -44 and -47 m (T4), -49 and 53 m (T5), -55 and 58 m (T6), -59 and 62 m (T7), -65 and 67 m (T8), -68 and 70 m (T9), -74 and -77 m (T10), -83 and -86 m (T11) and -89 and 92 m (T12). Nevertheless, the ones showing the best lateral continuity and preservation in the central part of the shelf are T3, T4, T5, T7, T8, and T10. The age of the terraces has been estimated using a landscape evolution model. To simulate the formation and preservation of submerged terraces three different scenarios: (i) 20-0 ka; (ii) 128-0 ka; and (iii) 128-20 ka, were compared. The best scenario for terrace generation was between 128 and 20 Ka, where T3, T5, and T7 could have been formed.
The Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost (GTN-P) provides the first dynamic database associated with the Thermal State of Permafrost (TSP) and the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) programs, which extensively collect permafrost temperature and active layer thickness (ALT) data from Arctic, Antarctic and mountain permafrost regions. The purpose of GTN-P is to establish an early warning system for the consequences of climate change in permafrost regions and to provide standardized thermal permafrost data to global models. In this paper we introduce the GTN-P database and perform statistical analysis of the GTN-P metadata to identify and quantify the spatial gaps in the site distribution in relation to climate-effective environmental parameters. We describe the concept and structure of the data management system in regard to user operability, data transfer and data policy. We outline data sources and data processing including quality control strategies based on national correspondents. Assessment of the metadata and data quality reveals 63% metadata completeness at active layer sites and 50% metadata completeness for boreholes.
Voronoi tessellation analysis on the spatial sample distribution of boreholes and active layer measurement sites quantifies the distribution inhomogeneity and provides a potential method to locate additional permafrost research sites by improving the representativeness of thermal monitoring across areas underlain by permafrost. The depth distribution of the boreholes reveals that 73% are shallower than 25m and 27% are deeper, reaching a maximum of 1 km depth. Comparison of the GTN-P site distribution with permafrost zones, soil organic carbon contents and vegetation types exhibits different local to regional monitoring situations, which are illustrated with maps. Preferential slope orientation at the sites most likely causes a bias in the temperature monitoring and should be taken into account when using the data for global models. The distribution of GTN-P sites within zones of projected temperature change show a high representation of areas with smaller expected temperature rise but a lower number of sites within Arctic areas where climate models project extreme temperature increase.
Die verschiedenen Meßverfahren zur Bestimmung von Bodenwassergehalten und der Bodenfeuchte konnten während ihres Einsatzes im Uvs-Nuur-Becken über einen längeren Zeitraum hinweg erprobt werden. Dabei stellte sich heraus, daß die Thetasonde und die Stechzylinderproben sich zur Bestimmung des volumetrischen Bodenwassergehalts gut eignen. An den Standorten, an denen parallele Messungen mit beiden Verfahren möglich waren, zeigten Vergleiche der Meßreihen, daß sich die beiden Methoden gegenseitig bestätigen. Nur in Einzelfällen traten größere Abweichungen zwischen den Tageswerten auf. Einschränkend auf die Anwendbarkeit der Verfahren und die Genauigkeit der Meßergebnisse kann sich die Bodenbeschaffenheit auswirken. In stark verdichteten oder skelettreichen Böden ist das Einbringen der Sondenmeßstäbe schwierig und stellenweise nicht möglich. Derartige Böden sind auch für die Entnahme von Stechzylinderproben problematisch, da es schwierig ist Materialverluste bei der Entnahme gering zuhalten. Die Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Bodenfeuchte, Tensiometer und Gipsblocksensoren, hatten gegenüber den anderen Verfahren den Vorteil, daß sie automatisiert waren. Auf diese Weise konnte auch ohne intensive Betreuung eine hohe zeitliche Meßdichte erzielt werden. Über eine Eichkurve, die im Labor erstellt wurde, konnten den Wasserspannungen die entsprechenden Bodenwassergehalte zugeordnet werden. Für Station S 2 sind die Tensiometermeßwerte gut geeignet, um zusammen mit den Stechzylinderproben die Bodenwasserdynamik zu beschreiben. An den anderen Standorten liegen die Wassergehalte, die man über die Eichkurve erhält, verglichen mit Thetasonden- und Stechzylinderwerten sehr viel höher. Beim Einsatz von Tensiometern und Gipsblocksensoren in diesem Gebiet muß aufgrund des geringen Bodenwassergehalts vieler Standorte besonders darauf geachtet werden, daß die Sensoren bzw. die Kerzen eng vom Boden umschlossen sind, ansonsten kann es zu erheblichen Beeinträchtigungen der Meßgenauigkeit kommen. Bei den Tensiometern muß zusätzlich darauf geachtet werden, daß der Meßbereich nicht überschritten wird. Die Variabilität zwischen den Bodenwassergehalten der Standorte ergibt sich aus ihrer Lage im Untersuchungsgebiet und dem Witterungsgeschehen. Die deutlichsten Unterschiede zeigen sich beim Vergleich der Standorte der Ebenen und der Hangbereiche. An den Standorten in der Ebene ist die potentielle Evapotranspiration höher als an den Hangstandorten, dies wirkt sich auf die absolute Höhe der Bodenwassergehalte und auf ihre Variabilität aus. In der Ebene gehen die Bodenwassergehalte nach einer Erhöhung durch Niederschlagseinträge aufgrund der starken Evapotranspiration relativ schnell wieder zurück, so kommt es zu einer hohen Variabilität. An den Hangstandorten ist dieser Effekt abgeschwächt, besonders gering ist die potentielle Verdunstung im Wald am Standort S 7. Die Meßreihen dort weisen geringere Gegensätze zwischen den Extrema auf. Die signifikanten Unterschiede der Bodenwassergehalte verschiedener Meßtiefen eines Standortes werden anhand Variationskoeffizienten der Meßreihen deutlich. In 5 cm Bodentiefe spiegelt sich das aktuelle atmosphärische Geschehen wider. Niederschlagseinträge werden durch eine unmittelbare Erhöhung des Bodenwassergehalts sichtbar. Ist die potentielle Verdunstung nach einer Erhöhung der Bodenwassergehalte durch Niederschlagseinträge hoch, verringern sich die Bodenwassergehalte in dieser Meßtiefe auch schnell wieder. In den Bereichen ab 20 cm Bodentiefe sind kurzfristige Erhöhungen des Bodenwassergehalts nur nach sehr starken Niederschlägen zu beobachten. Veränderungen wie der allmähliche Rückgang des Bodenwassergehalts in den tieferen Bodenschichten an S 3 sind nur über einen längeren Zeitraum festzustellen. Die zeitliche Variabilität der Bodenwassergehalte wird vom Witterungsgeschehen, insbesondere den Niederschlägen und der potentiellen Verdunstung, bestimmt. Im Sommer 1998 ist das Verhältnis von Niederschlag und potentieller Verdunstung so, daß auch nach den Hauptniederschlägen des Jahres in den Sommermonaten keine Erhöhung der Bodenwassergehalte stattgefunden hat. An Station S 3 ist in den tieferen Bodenschichten eine Austrocknung zu verzeichnen. Dies ist der Hauptunterschied zwischen den Jahren 1997 und 1998. 1997 fällt sehr viel mehr Regen als 1998, es kommt zu einer nachhaltigen Durchfeuchtung des Bodens. Auch die Verdunstung ist 1997 geringer. Nach Niederschlägen findet daher kein so schneller Rückgang der Bodenwassergehalte wie 1998 statt, und die Variabilität der Meßwerte ist geringer. Es ist anzunehmen, daß die Bodenwassergehalte am Anfang der Meßperiode des Jahres 1998, die im Laufe des Meßzeitraums abnehmen, Vorräte aus den Einträgen des Jahres 1997 darstellen. Eine nachhaltige Durchfeuchtung des Bodens findet also nur bei sehr hohen Niederschlagseinträgen wie im Jahr 1997 statt.
Streamflow dynamics in mountainous environments are controlled by runoff generation processes in the basin upstream. Runoff generation processes are thus a major control of the terrestrial part of the water cycle, influencing both, water quality and water quantity as well as their dynamics. The understanding of these processes becomes especially important for the prediction of floods, erosion, and dangerous mass movements, in particular as hydrological systems often show threshold behavior. In case of extensive environmental changes, be it in climate or in landuse, the understanding of runoff generation processes will allow us to better anticipate the consequences and can thus lead to a more responsible management of resources as well as risks. In this study the runoff generation processes in a small undisturbed catchment in the Chilean Andes were investigated. The research area is characterized by steep hillslopes, volcanic ash soils, undisturbed old growth forest and high rainfall amounts. The investigation of runoff generation processes in this data scarce area is of special interest as a) little is known on the hydrological functioning of the young volcanic ash soils, which are characterized by extremely high porosities and hydraulic conductivities, b) no process studies have been carried out in this area at either slope or catchment scale, and c) understanding the hydrological processes in undisturbed catchments will provide a basis to improve our understanding of disturbed systems, the shift in processes that followed the disturbance and maybe also future process evolution necessary for the achievement of a new steady state. The here studied catchment has thus the potential to serve as a reference catchment for future investigations. As no long term data of rainfall and runoff exists, it was necessary to replace long time series of data with a multitude of experimental methods, using the so called "multi-method approach". These methods cover as many aspects of runoff generation as possible and include not only the measurement of time series such as discharge, rainfall, soil water dynamics and groundwater dynamics, but also various short term measurements and experiments such as determination of throughfall amounts and variability, water chemistry, soil physical parameters, soil mineralogy, geo-electrical soundings and tracer techniques. Assembling the results like pieces of a puzzle produces a maybe not complete but nevertheless useful picture of the dynamic ensemble of runoff generation processes in this catchment. The employed methods were then evaluated for their usefulness vs. expenditures (labour and financial costs). Finally, the hypotheses - the perceptual model of runoff generation generated from the experimental findings - were tested with the physically based model Catflow. Additionally the process-based model Wasim-ETH was used to investigate the influence of landuse on runoff generation at the catchment scale. An initial assessment of hydrologic response of the catchment was achieved with a linear statistical model for the prediction of event runoff coefficients. The parameters identified as best predictors give a first indication of important processes. Various results acquired with the "multi-method approach" show that response to rainfall is generally fast. Preferential vertical flow is of major importance and is reinforced by hydrophobicity during the summer months. Rapid lateral water transport is necessary to produce the fast response signal, however, while lateral subsurface flow was observed at several soil moisture profiles, the location and type of structures causing fast lateral flow on the hillslope scale is still not clear and needs to be investigated in more detail. Surface runoff has not been observed and is unlikely due to the high hydraulic conductivities of the volcanic ash soils. Additionally, a large subsurface storage retains most of the incident rainfall amount during events (>90%, often even >95%) and produces streamflow even after several weeks of drought. Several findings suggest a shift in processes from summer to winter causing changes in flow patterns, changes in response of stream chemistry to rainfall events and also in groundwater-surface water interactions. The results of the modelling study confirm the importance of rapid and preferential flow processes. However, due to the limited knowledge on subsurface structures the model still does not fully capture runoff response. Investigating the importance of landuse on runoff generation showed that while peak runoff generally increased with deforested area, the location of these areas also had an effect. Overall, the "multi-method approach" of replacing long time series with a multitude of experimental methods was successful in the identification of dominant hydrological processes and thus proved its applicability for data scarce catchments under the constraint of limited resources.
Spatial patterns as well as temporal dynamics of soil moisture have a major influence on runoff generation. The investigation of these dynamics and patterns can thus yield valuable information on hydrological processes, especially in data scarce or previously ungauged catchments. The combination of spatially scarce but temporally high resolution soil moisture profiles with episodic and thus temporally scarce moisture profiles at additional locations provides information on spatial as well as temporal patterns of soil moisture at the hillslope transect scale. This approach is better suited to difficult terrain (dense forest, steep slopes) than geophysical techniques and at the same time less cost-intensive than a high resolution grid of continuously measuring sensors. Rainfall simulation experiments with dye tracers while continuously monitoring soil moisture response allows for visualization of flow processes in the unsaturated zone at these locations. Data was analyzed at different spacio-temporal scales using various graphical methods, such as space-time colour maps (for the event and plot scale) and binary indicator maps (for the long-term and hillslope scale). Annual dynamics of soil moisture and decimeterscale variability were also investigated. The proposed approach proved to be successful in the investigation of flow processes in the unsaturated zone and showed the importance of preferential flow in the Malalcahuello Catchment, a datascarce catchment in the Andes of Southern Chile. Fast response times of stream flow indicate that preferential flow observed at the plot scale might also be of importance at the hillslope or catchment scale. Flow patterns were highly variable in space but persistent in time. The most likely explanation for preferential flow in this catchment is a combination of hydrophobicity, small scale heterogeneity in rainfall due to redistribution in the canopy and strong gradients in unsaturated conductivities leading to self-reinforcing flow paths.
Accurate time series representation of paleoclimatic proxy records is challenging because such records involve dating errors in addition to proxy measurement errors. Rigorous attention is rarely given to age uncertainties in paleoclimatic research, although the latter can severely bias the results of proxy record analysis. Here, we introduce a Bayesian approach to represent layer-counted proxy records - such as ice cores, sediments, corals, or tree rings - as sequences of probability distributions on absolute, error-free time axes. The method accounts for both proxy measurement errors and uncertainties arising from layer-counting-based dating of the records. An application to oxygen isotope ratios from the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) record reveals that the counting errors, although seemingly small, lead to substantial uncertainties in the final representation of the oxygen isotope ratios. In particular, for the older parts of the NGRIP record, our results show that the total uncertainty originating from dating errors has been seriously underestimated. Our method is next applied to deriving the overall uncertainties of the Suigetsu radiocarbon comparison curve, which was recently obtained from varved sediment cores at Lake Suigetsu, Japan. This curve provides the only terrestrial radiocarbon comparison for the time interval 12.5-52.8 kyr BP. The uncertainties derived here can be readily employed to obtain complete error estimates for arbitrary radiometrically dated proxy records of this recent part of the last glacial interval.
Inhalt: 1 Vorspann: Bei ARD und ZDF sitzt Münster in der ersten Reihe 2 Alibi zur Tatzeit: GeographInnen vor dem Fernseher 3 Film ab: Münster als Schauplatz des Verbrechens 4 Doppelgänger unter Tatverdacht: Hinter den Kulissen von Wilsberg 5 Zeugen und Mittäter: Die Zuschauer 6 Nebenrollen und effekte: Regionalwirtschaftliche Auswirkungen 7 Abspann