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Sampling
(2022)
The aim of our study was to examine the extent to which linguistic approaches to sentence comprehension deficits in aphasia can account for differential impairment patterns in the comprehension of wh-questions in bilingual persons with aphasia (PWA). We investigated the comprehension of subject and object wh-questions in both Turkish, a wh-in-situ language, and German, a wh-fronting language, in two bilingual PWA using a sentence-to-picture matching task. Both PWA showed differential impairment patterns in their two languages. SK, an early bilingual PWA, had particular difficulty comprehending subject which-questions in Turkish but performed normal across all conditions in German. CT, a late bilingual PWA, performed more poorly for object which-questions in German than in all other conditions, whilst in Turkish his accuracy was at chance level across all conditions. We conclude that the observed patterns of selective cross-linguistic impairments cannot solely be attributed either to difficulty with wh-movement or to problems with the integration of discourse-level information. Instead our results suggest that differences between our PWA’s individual bilingualism profiles (e.g. onset of bilingualism, premorbid language dominance) considerably affected the nature and extent of their impairments.
Is there an ideal time window for language acquisition after which nativelike representation and processing are unattainable? Although this question has been heavily debated, no consensus has been reached. Here, we present evidence for a sensitive period in language development and show that it is specific to grammar. We conducted a masked priming task with a group of Turkish-German bilinguals and examined age of acquisition (AoA) effects on the processing of complex words. We compared a subtle but meaningful linguistic contrast, that between grammatical inflection and lexical-based derivation. The results showed a highly selective AoA effect on inflectional (but not derivational) priming. In addition, the effect displayed a discontinuity indicative of a sensitive period: Priming from inflected forms was nativelike when acquisition started before the age of 5 but declined with increasing AoA. We conclude that the acquisition of morphological rules expressing morphosyntactic properties is constrained by maturational factors.
Afropolitan Encounters
(2022)
Afropolitan Encounters: Literature and Activism in London and Berlin explores what Afropolitanism does. Mobile people of African descent use this term to address their own lived realities creatively, which often includes countering stereotypical notions of being African. Afropolitan practices are enormously heterogeneous and malleable, which constitutes its strengths and, at the same time, creates tensions.
This book traces the theoretical beginnings of Afropolitanism and moves on to explore Afropolitan practices in London and Berlin. Afropolitanism can take different forms, such as that of an identity, a political and ethical stance, a dead–end road, networks, a collective self–care practice or a strategic label. In spite of the harsh criticism, Afropolitanism is attractive for people to deal with the meanings of Africa and Africanness, questions of belonging, equal rights and opportunities.
While not a unitary project, the vast variety of Afropolitan practices provide approaches to contemporary political problems in Europe and beyond. In this book, Afropolitan practices are read against the specific context of German and British colonial histories and structures of racism, the histories of Black Europeans, and contemporary right–wing resurgence in Germany and England, respectively.
Speaking a late-learned second language (L2) is supposed to yield more variable and less consistent output than speaking one’s first language (L1), particularly with respect to reliably adhering to grammatical morphology. The current study investigates both internal processes involved in encoding morphologically complex words – by recording event-related brain potentials (ERPs) during participants’ silent productions – and the corresponding overt output. We specifically examined compounds with plural or singular modifiers in English. Thirty-one advanced L2 speakers of English (L1: German) were compared to a control group of 20 L1 English speakers from an earlier study. We found an enhanced (right-frontal) negativity during (silent) morphological encoding for compounds produced from regular plural forms relative to compounds formed from irregular plurals, replicating the ERP effect obtained for the L1 group. The L2 speakers’ overt productions, however, were significantly less consistent than those of the L1 speakers on the same task. We suggest that L2 speakers employ the same mechanisms for morphological encoding as L1 speakers, but with less reliance on grammatical constraints than L1 speakers.
Many children struggle with reading for comprehension. Reading is a complex cognitive task depending on various sub-tasks, such as word decoding and building connections across sentences. The task of connecting sentences is guided by referential expressions. References, such as anaphoric noun phrases (Minky/the cat) or pronouns (Minky/she), signal to the reader how the protagonists of adjacent sentences are connected. Readers construct a coherent mental model of the text by resolving these references. Personal pronouns (he/she) in particular need to be resolved towards an appropriate antecedent before they can be fully understood. Pronoun resolution therefore is vital for successful text comprehension. The present thesis investigated children’s resolution of personal pronouns during natural reading as a possible source of reading comprehension difficulty. Three eye tracking studies investigated whether children aged 8-9 (Grade 3-4) resolve pronouns online during reading and how the varying information around the pronoun region influences children’s eye movement behavior.
The first study investigated whether children prefer a pronoun over a noun phrase when the antecedent is highly accessible. Children read three-sentence stories that introduced a protagonist (Mia) in the first sentence and a reference to this protagonist in one of the following sentences using either a repeated name (Mia) or a pronoun (she). For proficient readers, it was repeatedly shown that there is a preference for a pronoun over the name in these contexts, i.e., when the antecedent is salient. The first study tested the repeated name penalty effect in children using eye tracking. It was hypothesized that in contrast to proficient readers, the fluency of children’s reading processing profits from an overlapping word form (i.e., the repeated noun phrase) compared to a pronoun. This is because overlapping word forms allow for direct mapping, whereas pronouns have to be resolved towards their antecedent first.
The second study investigated children’s online processing of pronominal gender in a mismatch paradigm. Children read sentences in which the pronoun either was a gender-match to the antecedent or a gender-mismatch. Reading skill and reading fluency were also tested and related to children’s ability to detect a mismatching pronoun during reading.
The third study investigated the online processing of gender information on the pronoun and whether disambiguating gender information improves the accuracy of pronoun comprehension. Offline comprehension accuracy, that is the comprehension of the pronoun, was related to children’s online eye movement behavior. This study was conducted in a semi-longitudinal paradigm: 70 children were tested in Grade 3 (age 8) and again in Grade 4 (age 9) to investigate effects of age and reading skill on pronoun processing and comprehension.
The results of this thesis clearly show that children aged 8-9, when they are in the second half of primary school, struggle with the comprehension of pronouns in reading tasks. The responses to pronoun comprehension questions revealed that children have difficulties with the comprehension of a pronoun in the absence of a disambiguating gender cue, that is when they have to apply context information. When there is a gender cue to disambiguate the pronoun, children’s accuracy improves significantly. This is true for children in Grade 3, but also in Grade 4, albeit their overall resolution accuracy slightly improves with age.
The results from the analyses of eye movements suggest that the discourse accessibility of an antecedent does play a role in children’s processing of pronouns and repeated names. The repetition of a name does not facilitate children’s reading processing like it was anticipated. Similar to adults, children showed a penalty effect for the repeated name where a pronoun is expected. However, this does not mean that children’s processing of pronouns is always adult-like. The results from eye movement analyses in the pronoun region during sentence reading revealed significant individual differences related to children’s individual reading skill and reading fluency.
The results from the mismatch study revealed that reading fluency is associated with children’s detection of incongruent pronouns. All children had longer gaze durations at mismatching than matching pronouns, but only fluent readers among the children followed this up with a regression out of the pronoun region. This was interpreted as an attempt to gain processing time and “repair” the inconsistency. Reading fluency was therefore associated with detection of the mismatch, while less fluent readers did not see any mismatch between pronoun and antecedent. The eye movement pattern of the “detectors” is more adult-like and was interpreted as reflecting successful monitoring and attempted pronoun resolution.
Children differ considerably in their reading comprehension skill. The results of this thesis show that only skilled readers among the children use gender information online for pronoun resolution. They took more time to read the pronoun when there was disambiguating gender information that was useful to resolve the pronoun, in contrast to the less skilled readers. Age was a less important factor in pronoun resolution processes and comprehension than were reading skill and reading fluency. Taken together, this suggests that the good readers direct cognitive resources towards pronoun resolution when the pronoun can be resolved, which is a successful comprehension strategy. Moreover, there was evidence that reading skill is a relevant factor in this task but not age.
The contribution of the present thesis is a depiction of the specific eye movement patterns that are related to successful and unsuccessful attempts at pronoun resolution in children. Eye movement behavior in the pronoun area is related to children’s reading skill and fluency. The results of this thesis suggest that many children do not resolve pronouns spontaneously during sentence reading, which is likely detrimental to their reading comprehension in more complex reading materials. The present thesis informs our understanding of the challenge that pronoun resolution poses for beginning readers, and gives new impulses for the study of higher-order reading processes in children’s natural reading.
Obwohl schon viel über kommerzielle Materialien gesagt und geschrieben wurde, ist unser Verständnis sehr begrenzt, wenn es um lokal produzierte (hauseigene, nicht-kommerzielle) Materialien geht, die oft verwendet werden, um bestehende veröffentlichte Materialien zu ersetzen oder zu ergänzen. In diesem Beitrag geben wir einen Überblick über die Literatur zur Darstellung von Geschlecht und Sexualität in kommerziellen Lehrmitteln und unsere Überlegungen zu lokal produzierten Unterrichtsmaterialien, die in einem Englisch-Intensivprogramm an einer Universität in der Türkei mit Englisch als Unterrichtsmedium (EMI) verwendet werden. Wir unterstreichen die Bedeutung von Materialien für die Handlungsfähigkeit von Lehrkräften bei der Schaffung eines sicheren und inklusiven Klassenzimmers und bei der Bekämpfung von systematischer Unterdrückung, Diskriminierung und Ungerechtigkeit im und ausserhalb des Klassenzimmers.
“Chunking” spoken language
(2021)
In this introductory paper to the special issue on “Weak cesuras in talk-in-interaction”, we aim to guide the reader into current work on the “chunking” of naturally occurring talk. It is conducted in the methodological frameworks of Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics – two approaches that consider the interactional aspect of humans talking with each other to be a crucial starting point for its analysis. In doing so, we will (1) lay out the background of this special issue (what is problematic about “chunking” talk-in-interaction, the characteristics of the methodological approach chosen by the contributors, the cesura model), (2) highlight what can be gained from such a revised understanding of “chunking” in talk-in-interaction by referring to previous work with this model as well as the findings of the contributions to this special issue, and (3) indicate further directions such work could take starting from papers in this special issue. We hope to induce a fruitful exchange on the phenomena discussed, across methodological divides.
Der Artikel diskutiert den Roman „A jak królem, a jak katem będziesz“ (1968, „Und wenn du König und wenn du Henker bist“) von Tadeusz Nowak unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Frage, wie die – durch die Augenzeugenschaft der Shoah begründeten – Traumata des polnischen Dorfes in Nowaks Text sichtbar werden. Der Roman ist geprägt durch ein ambivalentes, zwischen Wunsch- und Schuldnarrativen pendelndes Erzählen. Der Protagonist verkörpert einen unbequemen Helden, der tief verwurzelt in den volkstümlichen Traditionen seiner bäuerlichen Herkunft ist. Als paternalistischer Beschützer und Rächer seines jüdischen Freundes erlebt er die Zerstörung der dörflichen Idylle. Taumelnd zwischen Rachegedanken und Schuldgefühlen gegenüber seiner Dorfgemeinschaft verfällt Piotr dem Wahnsinn. Ein Weiterleben nach Kriegsende ist für ihn nur durch Amnesie und kathartische Wiederaufnahme in das dörfliche Kollektiv möglich. Die Stärke von Nowaks Roman liegt nicht allein in der Rekonstruktion der polnischen volkstümlichen Kultur. Vielmehr zeigt der Roman den Versuch, die historischen und sozialen Traumata des polnischen Dorfes während der Jahre 1939–1945 – die in der direkten und unmittelbaren Augenzeugenschaft der Shoah begründet liegen – mit dem der ruralen Bevölkerung eigenen Wort-, Legenden- und Erfahrungsschatz wiederzugeben.
The present work deals with the variation in the linearisation of German infinitival complements from a diachronic perspective. Based on the observation that in present-day German the position of infinitival complements is restricted by properties of the matrix verb (Haider, 2010, Wurmbrand, 2001), whereas this appears much more liberal in older stages of German (Demske, 2008, Maché and Abraham, 2011, Demske, 2015), this dissertation investigates the emergence of those restrictions and the factors that have led to a reduced, yet still existing variability. The study contrasts infinitival complements of two types of matrix verbs, namely raising and control verbs. In present-day German, these show different syntactic behaviour and opposite preferences as far as the position of the infinitive is concerned: while infinitival complements of raising verbs build a single clausal domain with the with the matrix verb and occur obligatorily intraposed, infinitive complements of control verbs can form clausal constituents and occur predominantly extraposed. This correlation is not attested in older stages of German, at least not until Early New High German.
Drawing on diachronic corpus data, the present work provides a description of the changes in the linearisation of infinitival complements from Early New High German to present-day German which aims at finding out when the correlation between infinitive type and word order emerged and further examines their possible causes. The study shows that word order change in German infinitival complements is not a case of syntactic change in the narrow sense, but that the diachronic variation results from the interaction of different language-internal and language-external factors and that it reflects, on the one hand, the influence of language modality on the emerging standard language and, on the other hand, a process of specialisation.
We report two corpus analyses to examine the impact of animacy, definiteness, givenness and type of referring expression on the ordering of double objects in the spontaneous speech of German-speaking two- to four-year-old children and the child-directed speech of their mothers. The first corpus analysis revealed that definiteness, givenness and type of referring expression influenced word order variation in child language and child-directed speech when the type of referring expression distinguished between pronouns and lexical noun phrases. These results correspond to previous child language studies in English (e.g., de Marneffe et al. 2012). Extending the scope of previous studies, our second corpus analysis examined the role of different pronoun types on word order. It revealed that word order in child language and child-directed speech was predictable from the types of pronouns used. Different types of pronouns were associated with different sentence positions but also showed a strong correlation to givenness and definiteness. Yet, the distinction between pronoun types diminished the effects of givenness so that givenness had an independent impact on word order only in child-directed speech but not in child language. Our results support a multi-factorial approach to word order in German. Moreover, they underline the strong impact of the type of referring expression on word order and suggest that it plays a crucial role in the acquisition of the factors influencing word order variation.
There are few data analysing to what specific extent phonomicrosurgery improves vocal function in patients suffering from Reinke's oedema (RE). The recently introduced parameter vocal extent measure (VEM) seems to be suitable to objectively quantify vocal performance. The purpose of this clinical prospective study was to investigate the outcomes of phonomicrosurgery in 60 RE patients (6 male, 54 female; 56 ± 8 years ([mean ± SD]) by analysing its effect on subjective and objective vocal parameters with particular regard to VEM. Treatment efficacy was evaluated at three months after surgery by comparing pre- and postoperative videolaryngostroboscopy (VLS), auditory-perceptual assessment (RBH-status), voice range profile (VRP), acoustic-aerodynamic analysis and patient's self-assessment using the voice handicap index (VHI-9i). Phonomicrosurgically, all RE were carefully ablated. VLS revealed removal or substantial reduction of oedema with restored periodic vocal fold vibration. All subjective and most objective acoustic and aerodynamic parameters significantly improved. The VEM increased on average from 64 ± 37 to 88 ± 25 (p #x003C; 0.001) and the dysphonia severity index (DSI) from 0.5 ± 3.4 to 2.9 ± 1.9. Both parameters correlated significantly with each other (rs = 0.70). RBH-status revealed less roughness, breathiness and overall grade of hoarseness (2.0 ± 0.7 vs 1.3 ± 0.7). The VHI-9i-score decreased from 18 ± 8 to 12 ± 9 points. The average total vocal range enlarged by 4 ± 7 semitones, and the mean speaking pitch rose by 2 ± 4 semitones. These results confirm that: (1) the use of VEM in RE patients objectifies and quantifies their vocal capacity as documented in the VRP, and (2) phonomicrosurgery is an effective, objectively and subjectively satisfactory therapy to improve voice in RE patients.
Cosa avviene quando coscienze linguistiche distinte, oltre ad essere separate dall’epoca, dall’area geografica di provenienza o dalla differenziazione sociale, dalle diverse dimensioni linguistiche, appartengono anche a domini semiotici diversi? È quel che accade ogni volta che comunichiamo in rete, l’interazione digitale è infatti l’ambito di comunicazione ibrido per eccellenza: in esso alla mescolanza di lingue diverse si sovrappone la mescolanza di codici diversi. Partendo dal presupposto che siano i nuovi bisogni espressivi e le nuove situazioni comunicative a spingere verso le innovazioni linguistiche, sembra dunque interessante tener conto del rilievo assunto dal repertorio visuale – e più in generale multimodale – nell’uso spontaneo dei nuovi media e constatare come le particolari strategie di costruzione del significato attualmente in atto non possano ormai più prescindere da queste seconde dimensioni. Del loro peso nell’uso digitale della lingua è bene avere consapevolezza per affrontare senza pregiudizi tutte le novità ad essa connesse. Un ruolo di centrale importanza nell’approccio al linguaggio verbale in Internet è legato alla funzione indessicale della lingua che, unito alla presenza di un archivio di riferimento di conoscenze del mondo condiviso, innesca un nuovo tipo d’inferenzialità nel ricevente. La conversazione attraverso i social network consente infatti azioni che non necessariamente sono presenti nello scambio vis-a-vis, ma che invece sono peculiari di Facebook, Twitter, G+, Instagram, Flickr e in generale dei social network: la condivisione di materiale multimediale di vario genere, l’opzione di richiamare i messaggi relativi a un tema specifico e la possibilità di glossarlo. Il materiale multimediale diventa così al tempo stesso parte integrante della comunicazione e modalità espressiva, focus del discorso e linguaggio metaforico condiviso. Questo lavoro di ricerca indaga come ambiti di ricerca diversi, e apparentemente distanti fra loro, possano interagire produttivamente con il panorama scientifico delle scienze del linguaggio, dell’immagine e della comunicazione, giungendo alla formulazione di un modello aggiornato dell'ibridazione linguistica che caratterizza la comunicazione in rete.
Looking times and gaze behavior indicate that infants can predict the goal state of an observed simple action event (e.g., object-directed grasping) already in the first year of life. The present paper mainly focuses on infants' predictive gaze-shifts toward the goal of an ongoing action. For this, infants need to generate a forward model of the to-be-obtained goal state and to disengage their gaze from the moving agent at a time when information about the action event is still incomplete. By about 6 months of age, infants show goal-predictive gaze-shifts, but mainly for familiar actions that they can perform themselves (e.g., grasping) and for familiar agents (e.g., a human hand). Therefore, some theoretical models have highlighted close relations between infants' ability for action-goal prediction and their motor development and/or emerging action experience. Recent research indicates that infants can also predict action goals of familiar simple actions performed by non-human agents (e.g., object-directed grasping by a mechanical claw) when these agents display agency cues, such as self-propelled movement, equifinality of goal approach, or production of a salient action effect. This paper provides a review on relevant findings and theoretical models, and proposes that the impacts of action experience and of agency cues can be explained from an action-event perspective. In particular, infants' goal-predictive gaze-shifts are seen as resulting from an interplay between bottom-up processing of perceptual information and top-down influences exerted by event schemata that store information about previously executed or observed actions.
This project describes the nominal, verbal and ‘truncation’ systems of Awing and explains the syntactic and semantic functions of the multifunctional l<-><-> (LE) morpheme in copular and wh-focused constructions. Awing is a Bantu Grassfields language spoken in the North West region of Cameroon. The work begins with morphological processes viz. deverbals, compounding, reduplication, borrowing and a thorough presentation of the pronominal system and takes on verbal categories viz. tense, aspect, mood, verbal extensions, negation, adverbs and triggers of a homorganic N(asal)-prefix that attaches to the verb and other verbal categories. Awing grammar also has a very unusual phenomenon whereby nouns and verbs take long and short forms. A chapter entitled truncation is dedicated to the phenomenon. It is observed that the truncation process does not apply to bare singular NPs, proper names and nouns derived via morphological processes. On the other hand, with the exception of the 1st person non-emphatic possessive determiner and the class 7 noun prefix, nouns generally take the truncated form with modifiers (i.e., articles, demonstratives and other possessives). It is concluded that nominal truncation depicts movement within the DP system (Abney 1987). Truncation of the verb occurs in three contexts: a mass/plurality conspiracy (or lattice structuring in terms of Link 1983) between the verb and its internal argument (i.e., direct object); a means to align (exhaustive) focus (in terms of Fery’s 2013), and a means to form polar questions.
The second part of the work focuses on the role of the LE morpheme in copular and wh-focused clauses. Firstly, the syntax of the Awing copular clause is presented and it is shown that copular clauses in Awing have ‘subject-focus’ vs ‘topic-focus’ partitions and that the LE morpheme indirectly relates such functions. Semantically, it is shown that LE does not express contrast or exhaustivity in copular clauses. Turning to wh-constructions, the work adheres to Hamblin’s (1973) idea that the meaning of a question is the set of its possible answers and based on Rooth’s (1985) underspecified semantic notion of alternative focus, concludes that the LE morpheme is not a Focus Marker (FM) in Awing: LE does not generate or indicate the presence of alternatives (Krifka 2007); The LE morpheme can associate with wh-elements as a focus-sensitive operator with semantic import that operates on the focus alternatives by presupposing an exhaustive answer, among other notions. With focalized categories, the project further substantiates the claim in Fominyam & Šimík (2017), namely that exhaustivity is part of the semantics of the LE morpheme and not derived via contextual implicature, via a number of diagnostics. Hence, unlike in copular clauses, the LE morpheme with wh-focused categories is analysed as a morphological exponent of a functional head Exh corresponding to Horvath's (2010) EI (Exhaustive Identification). The work ends with the syntax of verb focus and negation and modifies the idea in Fominyam & Šimík (2017), namely that the focalized verb that associates with the exhaustive (LE) particle is a lower copy of the finite verb that has been moved to Agr. It is argued that the LE-focused verb ‘cluster’ is an instantiation of adjunction. The conclusion is that verb doubling with verb focus in Awing is neither a realization of two copies of one and the same verb (Fominyam and Šimík 2017), nor a result of a copy triggered by a focus marker (Aboh and Dyakonova 2009). Rather, the focalized copy is said to be merged directly as the complement of LE forming a type of adjoining cluster.
Since the Shallow Structure Hypothesis (SSH) was first put forward in 2006, it has inspired a growing body of research on grammatical processing in nonnative (L2) speakers. More than 10 years later, we think it is time for the SSH to be reconsidered in the light of new empirical findings and current theoretical assumptions about human language processing. The purpose of our critical commentary is twofold: to clarify some issues regarding the SSH and to sketch possible ways in which this hypothesis might be refined and improved to better account for L1 and L2 speakers’ performance patterns.
Quo vadis, Rechtschreibrat?
(2018)
Im nachfolgenden Essay habe ich das Ziel gesetzt, die Entscheidung des Rats für deutsche Recht-schreibung, gewisse Fremdwortvariantenschreibungen aus dem Wörterverzeichnis zu streichen, vorwiegend anhand des Beispiels fachlich zu beleuchten und sich anhand dessen kritisch mit der Arbeit des Rechtschreibrats auseinanderzusetzen. Die dahinterstehende Didaktik wird selten explizit erwähnt, spielt in den Gedankengängen jedoch stets implizit eine Rolle.
The keynote article (Mayberry & Kluender, 2017) makes an important contribution to questions concerning the existence and characteristics of sensitive periods in language acquisition. Specifically, by comparing groups of non-native L1 and L2 signers, the authors have been able to ingeniously disentangle the effects of maturation from those of early language exposure. Based on L1 versus L2 contrasts, the paper convincingly argues that L2 learning is a less clear test of sensitive periods. Nevertheless, we believe Mayberry and Kluender underestimate the evidence for maturational factors in L2 learning, especially that coming from recent research.
Conceptualisation is the first step of speech production and describes the process by which we map our thoughts onto spoken language. Recent studies suggest that some people with language impairments have conceptualisation deficits manifested by information selection and sequencing difficulties. In this study, we examined conceptualisation in the complex picture descriptions of individuals with and without aphasia. We analysed the number and the order of main concepts (ideas produced by >= 60% of unimpaired speakers) and non-main concepts (e.g. irrelevant details). Half of the individuals with aphasia showed a reduced number of main concepts that could not be fully accounted for by their language production deficits. Moreover, individuals with aphasia produced both a larger amount of marginally relevant information, as well as having greater variability in the order of main concepts. Both findings provide support for the idea that conceptualisation deficits are a relatively common impairment in people with aphasia.
Zero-shot learning in Language & Vision is the task of correctly labelling (or naming) objects of novel categories. Another strand of work in L&V aims at pragmatically informative rather than "correct" object descriptions, e.g. in reference games. We combine these lines of research and model zero-shot reference games, where a speaker needs to successfully refer to a novel object in an image. Inspired by models of "rational speech acts", we extend a neural generator to become a pragmatic speaker reasoning about uncertain object categories. As a result of this reasoning, the generator produces fewer nouns and names of distractor categories as compared to a literal speaker. We show that this conversational strategy for dealing with novel objects often improves communicative success, in terms of resolution accuracy of an automatic listener.
The particle noch (‘still’) can have an additive reading similar to auch (‘also’). We argue that both particles indicate that a previously partially answered QUD is re-opened to add a further answer. The particles differ in that the QUD, in the case of auch, can be re-opened with respect to the same topic situation, whereas noch indicates that the QUD is re-opened with respect to a new topic situation. This account predicts a difference in the accommodation behavior of the two particles. We present an experiment whose results are in line with this prediction.
The particle noch (‘still’) can have an additive reading similar to auch (‘also’). We argue that both particles indicate that a previously partially answered QUD is re-opened to add a further answer. The particles differ in that the QUD, in the case of auch, can be re-opened with respect to the same topic situation, whereas noch indicates that the QUD is re-opened with respect to a new topic situation. This account predicts a difference in the accommodation behavior of the two particles. We present an experiment whose results are in line with this prediction.
Roland Barthes
(2020)
Previous cross-modal priming studies showed that lexical decisions to words after a pronoun were facilitated when these words were semantically related to the pronoun's antecedent. These studies suggested that semantic priming effectively measured antecedent retrieval during coreference. We examined whether these effects extended to implicit reading comprehension using the N400 response. The results of three experiments did not yield strong evidence of semantic facilitation due to coreference. Further, the comparison with two additional experiments showed that N400 facilitation effects were reduced in sentences (vs. word pair paradigms) and were modulated by the case morphology of the prime word. We propose that priming effects in cross-modal experiments may have resulted from task-related strategies. More generally, the impact of sentence context and morphological information on priming effects suggests that they may depend on the extent to which the upcoming input is predicted, rather than automatic spreading activation between semantically related words.
Der enge Zusammenhang von sprachlichen Kompetenzen und fachlichem Lernen ist empirisch gut belegt. Ebenfalls umfassend untersucht und beschrieben sind die vielfältigen Wechselwirkungen zwischen sprachlichen und kognitiven Prozessen, dies gilt insbesondere für das Kindesalter. Bisher liegt jedoch keine integrierende Übersicht über die Zusammenhänge von sprachlichen und kognitiven Funktionen sowie fachlichem Lernen im Schulkontext vor. Dieser Beitrag bietet einen Überblick, wie sich Sprache und kognitive Prozesse in ihrer Entwicklung gegenseitig beeinflussen und welche Konsequenzen sich daraus für das fachliche Lernen in der Schule ableiten lassen. Auf der Basis der dargestellten Befunde wird dann skizziert, welche Prinzipien im fachlichen Unterricht berücksichtigt werden sollten, um sprachliche und fachliche Lerngelegenheiten zu verbinden. Sprache kann sich so zu einem immer besseren Werkzeug des Lernens entwickeln. Sprachliche Kompetenzen in ihrer kommunikativen und kognitiven Funktion sind in diesem Sinne also nicht nur Voraussetzung, sondern auch Ziel fachlichen Lernens.
The author stems from the premise that modern anthroponymy effectively incorporates data from related fields of knowledge, primarily those of cultural and political history, thus getting enlarged through interdisciplinary research. An integrated approach allows one to deduce the extra-linguistic mechanisms which lay behind anthroponymic changes. In the same vein, the present paper focuses on the dynamics within the Russian anthroponymic paradigm caused by the changing vectors of political, ideological, cultural, and religious identity in the historical perspective of the New Time (1700-1920s). The study aims to establish the connection between specific trends in naming and the precedent names, events, and texts of political, cultural, and religious life. The mechanisms of anthroponymic shifts are illustrated by the cases of individual names becoming socially significant in a particular historical context. Using interdisciplinary methods of cultural anthropology, the study builds on textual sources, primarily name indexes to the collections of works by outstanding cultural figures and scholars, and biographical dictionaries. Some examples of pragmatic naming strategies in works of art (literature, opera, cinema) are also provided. Preliminary findings reveal some major trends in the Russian anthroponymic system of the New Age such as Europeization vs. Russification, modernization vs. archaization, as well as their synthesis. These tendencies remain key up to the present day and can be traced and characteristically defined within a set (or corpus) of names relating to the particular epoch, in terms of their frequency and the parameters of the sociolinguistic distribution. The diachronic perspective of the study also supports the sociolinguistic observation that the newly introduced names, which are currently in use, have a pronounced social resonance, which is getting neutralized as their frequency increases. Further development of the topic implies, among other things, statistical verification of preliminary findings.
This book is concerned with the diachronic development of selected topic and focus markers in Spanish, Portuguese and French. On the one hand, it focuses on the development of these structures from their relational meaning to their topic-/ focus-marking meaning, and on the other hand, it is concerned with their current form und use. Thus, Romance topic and focus markers – such as sp. en cuanto a, pt. a propósito de, fr. au niveau de or sentence-initial sp. Lo que as well as clefts and pseudo-clefts – are investigated from a quantitative and qualitative perspective. The author argues that topic markers have procedural meaning and that their function is bound to their syntactic position. An important contribution of this study is the fact that real linguistic evidence (in the form of data from various corpora) is analyzed instead of operating with constructed examples.
The aim of the doctoral project was to answer the question of whether the structural word-initial noun capitalization, as it can otherwise only be found in Luxembourgish alongside German, has a function that is advantageous for the reader. The overriding hypothesis was that an advantage is achieved by activating a syntactic category, namely the core of a noun phrase, through the parafoveal perception of the capital letters. This perception from the corner of the eye should make it possible to preprocess the following noun. As a result, sentence processing should be facilitated, which should ultimately be reflected in overall faster reading times and fixation durations.
The structure of the project includes three studies, some of which included different participant groups:
Study 1:
Study design: Semantic priming using garden-path sentences should bring out the functionality of noun capitalization for the reader
Participant groups: German natives reading German
Study 2:
Study design: same design as study 1, but in English
Participant groups:
English natives without any knowledge of German reading English
English natives who regularly read German reading English
German with high proficiency in English reading English
Study 3:
Study design:
Influence of the noun frequency on a potential preprocessing using the boundary paradigm; Study languages: German and English
Participant groups:
German natives reading German
English natives without any knowledge of German reading English
German with high proficiency in English reading English
Brief summary: The noun capitalization clearly has an impact on sentence processing in both German and English. It cannot be confirmed that this has a substantial, decisive advantage.
In den letzten Jahren erlebte der Rechtspopulismus in Europa einen Aufstieg. Die ‚Alternative für Deutschland‘ (AfD) erhielt bei der deutschen Bundestagswahl 2017 beispielsweise 12,7 % der abgegebenen Stimmen und war darüber hinaus gerade im Osten des Landes erfolgreich. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird vergleichend untersucht, welche sprachlichen Manipulationsstrategien der AfD dazu beitragen und wie sie wirken. Die Arbeit gliedert sich grob in zwei Teile: die Analyse des Sprachgebrauchs der AfD und schließlich der Vergleich mit jenem der Nationalsozialist:innen. Ziel der Arbeit ist es nicht, die AfD als Kopie der NSDAP zu entlarven, sondern ihre sprachlichen Manipulationsstrategien im historischen Kontext ergebnisoffen zu analysieren und so ein tieferes Verständnis dieser zu ermöglichen, um eine Grundlage für die zukünftige Erarbeitung möglicher Gegenstrategien zu schaffen.
Dabei stellt sich die Verwendung von diskriminierenden Sprechakten als wesentlicher Teilaspekt der Strategie heraus. So kann aus den Ergebnissen geschlussfolgert werden, dass die Polarisierung der Gesellschaft in zwei Teile (Ingroup und Outgroup) sowie die damit verbundene Diskriminierung der Outgroup als Ziel des Sprachgebrauchs der AfD bezeichnet werden können. Auf diesem Weg kann eine zunehmende Radikalisierung des Sprachgebrauchs innerhalb der letzten Jahre festgestellt werden.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden im Vergleich mit den Nationalsozialist:innen zahlreiche Parallelen deutlich: Über gemeinsame Stilmittel wie Metaphorik, Verwendung von Superlativen oder bestimmten Begrifflichkeiten hinaus ist hier vor allem die Diskriminierung eines konkreten Feindbildes sowie die angestrebte Spaltung der Bevölkerung zu nennen. Zugleich gilt es auch, die deutlichen Unterschiede zwischen dem Sprachgebrauch im Nationalsozialismus und jenem der AfD zu akzentuieren, um eine ebenso leichtfertige wie unangemessene Gleichsetzung zu verhindern. Zentral ist hier die Eindeutigkeit des Sprachgebrauchs. Die Vergleiche mit verschiedenen Quellen aus dem Dritten Reich verdeutlichen, dass der Sprachgebrauch im Nationalsozialismus direkter und viel radikaler war. Die AfD ist hingegen oftmals darauf bedacht, ihre Aussagen nur augenscheinlich eindeutig zu formulieren, sich insgesamt aber immer eine Möglichkeit des sprachlichen Zurückruderns offen zu halten. Ein offensichtlicher Grund dürften die unterschiedlichen gesellschaftlichen Bedingungen zu beiden Zeiten sein. Für die AfD ist es heute schwieriger, eine ausreichend große Masse an mindestens unsicheren Menschen zu mobilisieren. Begründet werden kann dies mit einer im Vergleich zur Weimarer Republik über Jahrzehnte hinweg gesetzlich, politisch und gesellschaftlich etablierten und sehr stabilen Demokratie. Deshalb ist die AfD darauf angewiesen, eine mehrdeutige Sprache zu verwenden, die ihnen im Bedarfsfall eine Rechtfertigung und somit einen Weg zurück ermöglicht. Darüber hinaus ermöglicht ihnen ein solcher Sprachgebrauch aber auch, sich einerseits gegenüber den Institutionen der Demokratie (beispielsweise dem Verfassungsschutz) zu rechtfertigen und andererseits insbesondere der konservativen Wählerschaft das Gefühl zu geben, dass sie keine rechtsextreme Partei wählen.
Aus den Ergebnissen der Arbeit lässt sich darüber hinaus die These ableiten, dass eine Veränderung des Sprachgebrauchs allein nicht dazu führt, dass Menschen einer Ideologie folgen. Der historische Vergleich deutet aber darauf hin, dass ein diskriminierender Sprachgebrauch zur Entstehung eines Nährbodens einer solchen Ideologie beitragen kann, wenn der gesellschaftliche und politische Rahmen es zulässt. Diesen Rahmen versucht die AfD Stück für Stück in ihrem Sinne zu verschieben. In den letzten Jahren gelang es ihr zunehmend, den öffentlichen Diskurs zu ihren Gunsten mitzubestimmen und zu verändern. Dafür ist der manipulative Gebrauch von Sprache entscheidend. Durch ihn sind sie in der Lage, die ›gefühlte‹ Wahrheit im Kampf gegen Fakten siegen zu lassen und Diskurse wie die Klima-Debatte oder die Diskussionen um Maßnahmen gegen die Coronapandemie zu beeinflussen.
Die Arbeit macht aber auch deutlich, wie kompliziert das Vorhaben der Polarisierung in einer heterogenen Gesellschaft wie der heutigen deutschen ist. Sogar innerhalb der AfD kommt es immer häufiger zu Uneinigkeiten.
This paper addresses semantic/pragmatic variability of tag questions in German and makes three main contributions. First, we document the prevalence and variety of question tags in German across three different types of conversational corpora. Second, by annotating question tags according to their syntactic and semantic context, discourse function, and pragmatic effect, we demonstrate the existing overlap and differences between the individual tag variants. Finally, we distinguish several groups of question tags by identifying the factors that influence the speakers’ choices of tags in the conversational context, such as clause type, function, speaker/hearer knowledge, as well as conversation type and medium. These factors provide the limits of variability by constraining certain question tags in German against occurring in specific contexts or with individual functions.
The idea of a linguistic worldview was clearly expressed in German national romantic thought of the early 19th century, where language was seen as the expression of the spirit of a nation. Wilhelm von Humboldt argued that every language shaped the world-view of its speakers, but he also saw a possibility to improve human knowledge in the co-action of languages.
The idea of linguistic relativity can be found in John Locke’s statement that words interpose themselves between our understandings and the truth which it would contemplate and apprehend. In the 18th century, we can find formulations that our language accustoms us to arrange our ideas in a specific way, that some languages are more suitable for certain kinds of thought, or that metaphors have significant influence on peoples’ thought. In the 20thcentury the Neo-Humboldtian school revitalised the idea of an influence of language on thought in a reductionist way. At the end of the 20th century, some authors, for example John J. Gumperz and Stephen C. Levinson, tried to rethink linguistic relativity and to prove it by empirical results.
The point of departure of this paper is the claim by Heyvaert, Maekelberghe & Buyle (2019) that the suffix -ing has no aspectual meaning in English gerunds. Rather, the interpretation of nominal and verbal gerunds depends, so they argue, on situation or viewpoint aspect, a claim that contradicts the wide-spread view that the aspectual meaning of English gerunds is brought about by the nominalizing suffix. The present paper addresses the issue from a comparative perspective, focusing on German ung-nominals: while they share aspectual features with their English counterparts, empirical evidence from productivity, distribution, and argument linking shows (i) that the derivational suffix -ung imposes aspectual restrictions on possible verb bases, and (ii) that with respect to argument linking, the deverbal nominal favors the state component of a complex event predicate over its process component. From the historical record of German, we learn that these aspectual restrictions do not hold for ung-nominals in earlier periods of German. With the rise of aspectual restrictions, the nominalization pattern turns more nominal resulting in a position further towards the nominal end of the deverbalization continuum. It appears, then, that it is only in the historical pariods of German that ung-nominals pattern with English nominals as regards their aspectual features. Currently, German ung-nominals are more noun-like than nominal (and verbal) gerunds in English. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Vergangene Vergangenheit?
(2019)
Simulationen
(2020)
Bei Simulationen im Fremdsprachenunterricht handelt es sich um eine ganz-heitliche Lehr-Lern-Methode, in der Lernende mit einer realen oder realitäts-bezogenen Kommunikationssituation konfrontiert werden, um ihre Kompetenzen zur Bewältigung dieser Situation weiterzuentwickeln. Kennzeichnend für die Simulation sind u. a. der Spielcharakter, die Komplexität, Offenheit und Dynamik: Im Vergleich zu Rollenspielen übernehmen alle Lernenden eine Rolle in der Simulation, die in ihrer Ausgestaltung nicht festgelegt ist und den Lernenden Gestaltungsspielräume bietet. Der Verlauf und der Ausgang einer Simulation sind zumeist offen, so dass durch das Handeln der Lernenden eine eigene Dynamik in der simulierten Wirklichkeit entsteht, die wiederum zur aktiven Mitgestaltung motivieren kann.
Verfahren des Genre-Lernens
(2020)
Der Ansatz des genrebasierten Fremdsprachenlernens basiert auf der Grundannahme, dass sich Kommunikation in der Form kultureller Genres vollzieht, die eine spezifische textuelle und interaktionale Form aufweisen. Wer erfolgreich kommunizieren will, muss daher je nach sozialem Kontext und Kommunikationszweck eine Form der Äußerung wählen, die dem entsprechenden Anlass bzw. der Situation angemessen und für die Kommunikationsabsicht zielführend ist. Für den Fremdsprachenunterricht leitet sich daraus das Ziel bzw. die Aufgabe ab, Lernende beim Erwerb dieser Kommunikationsformate bzw. Genres zu unterstützen.
This article illustrates how pre-service English teachers’ diagnostic skills of pragmatic competences can be developed in an interdisciplinary seminar that focuses on assessing foreign language learners’ interactional competence (specifically turn-taking, action accomplishment, repair). A competence-oriented approach was chosen to model the linguistic and didactic skills required by language teachers to assess learners’ pragmatic competence in role plays.
Rollenspiel
(2020)
Das Rollenspiel wird im Fremdsprachenunterricht eingesetzt, um die freie, interaktive Verwendung der Fremdsprache in realen bzw.oder realitätsbezogenen Kommunikationssituationen zu fördern bzw.und einzuüben. Im Sinne kommunikativen Fremdsprachenunterrichts und des Prinzips der situated practice geht es um die kommunikative und gebrauchsbezogene Verwendung der Fremdsprache: Lernende erhalten im Rollenspiel die Möglichkeit, ihre Fähigkeiten zum sprachlichen und interaktiven Handeln in konkreten Gesprächssituationen zu entwickeln.
Feld und Stil
(2020)
Figura Tropicana
(2020)
Debates on the relevance of repatriation of indigenous human remains are water under the bridge today. Yet, a genuine will for dialogue to work through colonial violence is found lacking in the European public sphere. Looking at local remembrance of the Majimaji War (1905-07) in the south of Tanzania and a German-Tanzanian theatre production, this article demonstrates how the spectre of colonial headhunting stands at the heart of claims for repatriation and acknowledgement of this anti-colonial movement. The missing head of Ngoni leader Songea Mbano haunts the future of German-Tanzanian relations in culture and heritage. By staging the act of post-mortem dismemberment and foregrounding the perspective of descendants, the theatre production Maji Maji Flava offers an honest proposal for dealing with stories of sheer colonial violence in transnational memory.
An effective training program needs to be customized to the specific
demands of the redpective sport. Therefore, it is important to
conduct a needs analysis to gain information on the unique
characteristics of the sport. The objectives of thes review were (A)
to conduct a systematic needs analysis of karate kumite and (B) to
provide practical recommendations for sport-specific performance
testing and training of karate kumite athletes.
Mittelhochdeutsch
(2020)
Die Geschichte der deutschen Sprache als unverzichtbares Standardwerk für das germanistische Studium erscheint nunmehr in der 12., überarbeiteten und aktualisierten Auflage. Das umfassende Lehrbuch zur Sprachgeschichte gliedert sich fortan in zwei Bände: Dieser erste Teil bietet neben einer Einführung in sprachgeschichtliche Fragen eine detaillierte Darstellung der Vorgeschichte und der Geschichte der deutschenSprache bis in die Gegenwart. Basierend auf intensiven Quellenanalysen fokussiert sich die Darstellung auf kultur- und sozialgeschichtliche Aspekte. Lediglich dieKapitel zur indogermanischen und germanischen Sprache enthalten bereits wichtige strukturgeschichtliche Informationen.
Der zweite Teil des bewährten Lehr- und Handbuchs Geschichte der deutschen Sprache enthält konzise und trotzdem leicht verständliche Darstellungen des Alt-, Mittel- und Frühneuhochdeutschen im Bereich der Phonologie, der Graphematik, der Morphologie und der Syntax. Dabei handelt es sich nicht nur um synchrone Beschreibungen des jeweiligen Sprachzustands, sondern auch um die Entwicklung des deutschen Sprachbaus auf allen strukturellen Ebenen. Die Verbindung von grammatischer Synchronie und struktureller Diachronie ist ein besonderes Markenzeichen dieses zweiten Teils der Schmidt'schen Sprachgeschichte.
Pattdeutsch gehört nicht nur in den äußersten Norden Deutschlands, es gehört auch zum Land Brandenburg. Die niederdeutsche Mundart bereichert unsere Geschichte und unsere Kultur bis in die Gegenwart – ist Teil unserer Heimat. In der Fibel sind zeitgemäße und kindgerechte Texte für die Jüngsten zusammengestellt worden. Eingearbeitet sind regionale Varianten, speziell aus der Prignitz und der Uckermark. Zusätzlich erklären und erleichtern die zusammengestellten Regeln mit einem kleinen Wörterverzeichnis den Umgang mit der Sprache und ihrem Verständnis. Mit den hier vorliegenden Texten, Übungen und Spielen verknüpft mit einer durchgängigen schwungvollen Illustration, macht das Erlernen der Niederdeutschen Sprache wieder Spaß und vielleicht sogar neugierig. Damit kann die Fibel einen kleinen aber beachtlichen Teil in der Verantwortung für das Kulturerbe im Land Brandenburg übernehmen.
Mundart und Umgangssprache
(2020)
Matching participants (as suggested by Hope, 2015) may be one promising option for research on a potential bilingual advantage in executive functions (EF). In this study we first compared performances in three EF-tasks of a naturally heterogeneous sample of monolingual (n = 69, age = 9.0 y) and multilingual children (n = 57, age = 9.3 y). Secondly, we meticulously matched participants pairwise to obtain two highly homogeneous groups to rerun our analysis and investigate a potential bilingual advantage. The initally disadvantaged multilinguals (regarding socioeconomic status and German lexicon size) performed worse in updating and response inhibition, but similarly in interference inhibition. This indicates that superior EF compensate for the detrimental effects of the background variables. After matching children pairwise on age, gender, intelligence, socioeconomic status and German lexicon size, performances became similar except for interference inhibition. Here, an advantage for multilinguals in the form of globally reduced reaction times emerged, indicating a bilingual executive processing advantage.
Alcohol in the aging brain
(2019)
As our society grows older new challenges for medicine and healthcare emerge. Age-related changes of the body have been observed in essential body functions, particularly in the loco-motor system, in the cardiovascular system and in cognitive functions concerning both brain plasticity and changes in behavior. Nutrition and lifestyle, such as nicotine intake and chronic alcohol consumption, also contribute to biological changes in the brain. This review addresses the effect of alcohol consumption on cognitive decline, changes in brain plasticity in the aging brain and on cardiovascular health in aging. Thus, studies on the interplay of chronic alcohol intake and either cognitive decline or cognitive preservation are outlined. Because of the inconsistency in the literature of whether alcohol consumption preserves cognitive functions in the aging brain or whether it accelerates cognitive decline, it is crucial to consider individual contributing factors such as culture, health and lifestyle in future studies.
We report two corpus analyses to examine the impact of animacy, definiteness, givenness and type of referring expression on the ordering of double objects in the spontaneous speech of German-speaking two- to four-year-old children and the child-directed speech of their mothers. The first corpus analysis revealed that definiteness, givenness and type of referring expression influenced word order variation in child language and child-directed speech when the type of referring expression distinguished between pronouns and lexical noun phrases. These results correspond to previous child language studies in English (e.g., de Marneffe et al. 2012). Extending the scope of previous studies, our second corpus analysis examined the role of different pronoun types on word order. It revealed that word order in child language and child-directed speech was predictable from the types of pronouns used. Different types of pronouns were associated with different sentence positions but also showed a strong correlation to givenness and definiteness. Yet, the distinction between pronoun types diminished the effects of givenness so that givenness had an independent impact on word order only in child-directed speech but not in child language. Our results support a multi-factorial approach to word order in German. Moreover, they underline the strong impact of the type of referring expression on word order and suggest that it plays a crucial role in the acquisition of the factors influencing word order variation.
Back from the future
(2019)
Purpose: This study examines the temporal organization of vocalic anticipation in German children from 3 to 7 years of age and adults. The main objective was to test for nonlinear processes in vocalic anticipation, which may result from the interaction between lingual gestural goals for individual vowels and those for their neighbors over time. Method: The technique of ultrasound imaging was employed to record tongue movement at 5 time points throughout short utterances of the form V1#CV2. Vocalic anticipation was examined with generalized additive modeling, an analytical approach allowing for the estimation of both linear and nonlinear influences on anticipatory processes. Conclusions: A developmental transition towards more segmentally-specified coarticulatory organizations seems to occur from kindergarten to primary school to adulthood. In adults, nonlinear anticipatory patterns over time suggest a strong differentiation between the gestural goals for consecutive segments. In children, this differentiation is not yet mature: Vowels show greater prominence over time and seem activated more in phase with those of previous segments relative to adults.
Many human infants grow up learning more than one language simultaneously but only recently has research started to study early language acquisition in this population more systematically. The paper gives an overview on findings on early language acquisition in bilingual infants during the first two years of life and compares these findings to current knowledge on early language acquisition in monolingual infants. Given the state of the research, the overview focuses on research on phonological and early lexical development in the first two years of life. We will show that the developmental trajectory of early language acquisition in these areas is very similar in mono- and bilingual infants suggesting that these early steps into language are guided by mechanisms that are rather robust against the differences in the conditions of language exposure that mono- and bilingual infants typically experience.
The current study investigates how bilingual children encode and produce morphologically complex words. We employed a silent-production-plus-delayed-vocalization paradigm in which event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded during silent encoding of inflected words which were subsequently cued to be overtly produced. The bilingual children's spoken responses and their ERPs were compared to previous datasets from monolingual children on the same task. We found an enhanced negativity for regular relative to irregular forms during silent production in both bilingual children's languages, replicating the ERP effect previously obtained from monolingual children. Nevertheless, the bilingual children produced more morphological errors (viz. over-regularizations) than monolingual children. We conclude that mechanisms of morphological encoding (as measured by ERPs) are parallel for bilingual and monolingual children, and that the increased over-regularization rates are due to their reduced exposure to each of the two languages (relative to monolingual children).
Children's online use of word order and morphosyntactic markers in Tagalog thematic role assignment
(2019)
We investigated whether Tagalog-speaking children incrementally interpret the first noun as the agent, even if verbal and nominal markers for assigning thematic roles are given early in Tagalog sentences. We asked five- and seven-year-old children and adult controls to select which of two pictures of reversible actions matched the sentence they heard, while their looks to the pictures were tracked. Accuracy and eye-tracking data showed that agent-initial sentences were easier to comprehend than patient-initial sentences, but the effect of word order was modulated by voice. Moreover, our eye-tracking data provided evidence that, by the first noun phrase, seven-year-old children looked more to the target in the agent-initial compared to the patient-initial conditions, but this word order advantage was no longer observed by the second noun phrase. The findings support language processing and acquisition models which emphasize the role of frequency in developing heuristic strategies (e.g., Chang, Dell, & Bock, 2006).
The current study investigates how bilingual children encode and produce morphologically complex words. We employed a silent-production-plus-delayed-vocalization paradigm in which event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded during silent encoding of inflected words which were subsequently cued to be overtly produced. The bilingual children's spoken responses and their ERPs were compared to previous datasets from monolingual children on the same task. We found an enhanced negativity for regular relative to irregular forms during silent production in both bilingual children's languages, replicating the ERP effect previously obtained from monolingual children. Nevertheless, the bilingual children produced more morphological errors (viz. over-regularizations) than monolingual children. We conclude that mechanisms of morphological encoding (as measured by ERPs) are parallel for bilingual and monolingual children, and that the increased over-regularization rates are due to their reduced exposure to each of the two languages (relative to monolingual children).
This study investigates the effect of bilingualism on learning English as a foreign language (L3), examining the impact of manner and sequence of bilingual acquisition and learning as well as language use practices in language minority children. With a sample of 1295 German eighth and ninth graders (bilingual: n = 456, monolingual: n = 839), we examined if certain aspects of bilingualism present an advantageous condition for learning English as a foreign language in bilingual language minority students. Controlling for socio-economic status, indicators of cultural capital, and gender, the regression analyses revealed higher L3 listening and reading outcomes for bilinguals who received formal instruction in their minority language, had acquired both languages in their first three years, and switched more often between their two languages, when compared to their other bilingual and monolingual peers. The discussion focuses on the importance for bilingual children in immigrant communities to have high proficiencies in both majority and minority languages in order to develop advantages in foreign language learning.
El presente estudio revela elementos lingüísticos que existen entre dos variedades del español y determina en qué medida estos aportes son relevantes para la enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera. Por medio de un contraste lingüístico de textos audiovisuales entre dos cortometrajes auténticos, provenientes de México y España y bajo la temática del fenómeno social del bullying, se hizo un análisis comparativo entre los resultados del contraste. El objetivo principal es evidenciar combinaciones sintácticas, elementos léxicos, pragmáticos y semánticos que existen entre las distintas formas de expresión de las dos hablas. Los resultados obtenidos muestran componentes significantes de la lengua, que confirman la importancia de tratar el tema de las variedades del español en el aula, desde una perspectiva tanto didáctica como socio-cultural.
A large body of research now supports the presence of both syntactic and lexical predictions in sentence processing. Lexical predictions, in particular, are considered to indicate a deep level of predictive processing that extends past the structural features of a necessary word (e.g. noun), right down to the phonological features of the lexical identity of a specific word (e.g. /kite/; DeLong et al., 2005). However, evidence for lexical predictions typically focuses on predictions in very local environments, such as the adjacent word or words (DeLong et al., 2005; Van Berkum et al., 2005; Wicha et al., 2004). Predictions in such local environments may be indistinguishable from lexical priming, which is transient and uncontrolled, and as such may prime lexical items that are not compatible with the context (e.g. Kukona et al., 2014). Predictive processing has been argued to be a controlled process, with top-down information guiding preactivation of plausible upcoming lexical items (Kuperberg & Jaeger, 2016). One way to distinguish lexical priming from prediction is to demonstrate that preactivated lexical content can be maintained over longer distances.
In this dissertation, separable German particle verbs are used to demonstrate that preactivation of lexical items can be maintained over multi-word distances. A self-paced reading time and an eye tracking experiment provide some support for the idea that particle preactivation triggered by a verb and its context can be observed by holding the sentence context constant and manipulating the predictabilty of the particle. Although evidence of an effect of particle predictability was only seen in eye tracking, this is consistent with previous evidence suggesting that predictive processing facilitates only some eye tracking measures to which the self-paced reading modality may not be sensitive (Staub, 2015; Rayner1998). Interestingly, manipulating the distance between the verb and the particle did not affect reading times, suggesting that the surprisal-predicted faster reading times at long distance may only occur when the additional distance is created by information that adds information about the lexical identity of a distant element (Levy, 2008; Grodner & Gibson, 2005). Furthermore, the results provide support for models proposing that temporal decay is not major influence on word processing (Lewandowsky et al., 2009; Vasishth et al., 2019).
In the third and fourth experiments, event-related potentials were used as a method for detecting specific lexical predictions. In the initial ERP experiment, we found some support for the presence of lexical predictions when the sentence context constrained the number of plausible particles to a single particle. This was suggested by a frontal post-N400 positivity (PNP) that was elicited when a lexical prediction had been violated, but not to violations when more than one particle had been plausible. The results of this study were highly consistent with previous research suggesting that the PNP might be a much sought-after ERP marker of prediction failure (DeLong et al., 2011; DeLong et al., 2014; Van Petten & Luka, 2012; Thornhill & Van Petten, 2012; Kuperberg et al., 2019). However, a second experiment in a larger sample experiment failed to replicate the effect, but did suggest the relationship of the PNP to predictive processing may not yet be fully understood. Evidence for long-distance lexical predictions was inconclusive.
The conclusion drawn from the four experiments is that preactivation of the lexical entries of plausible upcoming particles did occur and was maintained over long distances. The facilitatory effect of this preactivation at the particle site therefore did not appear to be the result of transient lexical priming. However, the question of whether this preactivation can also lead to lexical predictions of a specific particle remains unanswered. Of particular interest to future research on predictive processing is further characterisation of the PNP. Implications for models of sentence processing may be the inclusion of long-distance lexical predictions, or the possibility that preactivation of lexical material can facilitate reading times and ERP amplitude without commitment to a specific lexical item.
This thesis investigates the comprehension of the passive voice in three distinct populations. First, the comprehension of passives by adult German speakers was studied, followed by an examination of how German-speaking children comprehend the structure. Finally, bilingual Mandarin-English speakers were tested on their comprehension of the passive voice in English, which is their L2. An integral part of testing the comprehension in all three populations is the use of structural priming. In each of the three distinct parts of the research, structural priming was used for a specific reason. In the study involving adult German speakers, productive and receptive structural priming was directly compared. The goal was to see the effect the two priming modalities have on language comprehension. In the study on German-acquiring children, structural priming was an important tool in answering the question regarding the delayed acquisition of the passive voice. Finally, in the study on the bilingual population, cross-linguistic priming was used to investigate the importance of word order in the priming effect, since Mandarin and English have different word orders in passive voice sentences.
Literatur als Kunst
(2019)
This study is the first to use kinematic data to assess lingual carryover coarticulation in children. We investigated whether the developmental decrease previously attested in anticipatory coarticulation, as well as the relation between coarticulatory degree and the consonantal context, also characterize carryover coarticulation. Sixty-two children and 13 adults, all native speakers of German, were recruited according to five age cohorts: three-year-olds, four-year-olds, five-year-olds, seven-year-olds, and adults. Tongue movements during the production of ə.CV.Cə utterances (C = /b, d, g/, V = /i, y, e, a, o, u/) were recorded with ultrasound. We measured vowel-induced horizontal displacement of the tongue dorsum within the last syllable and compared the resulting coarticulatory patterns between age cohorts and consonantal contexts. Results indicate that the degree of vocalic carryover coarticulation decreases with age. Vocalic prominence within an utterance as well as its change across childhood depended on the postvocalic consonant’s articulatory demands for the tongue dorsum (i.e., its coarticulatory resistance): Low resistant /b/ and /g/ allowed for more vocalic perseveration and a continuous decrease, while the highly resistant /d/ displayed lower coarticulation degrees and discontinuous effects. These findings parallel those in anticipation suggesting a similar organization of anticipatory and carryover coarticulation. Implications for theories of speech production are discussed.
This study is the first to use kinematic data to assess lingual carryover coarticulation in children. We investigated whether the developmental decrease previously attested in anticipatory coarticulation, as well as the relation between coarticulatory degree and the consonantal context, also characterize carryover coarticulation. Sixty-two children and 13 adults, all native speakers of German, were recruited according to five age cohorts: three-year-olds, four-year-olds, five-year-olds, seven-year-olds, and adults. Tongue movements during the production of ə.CV.Cə utterances (C = /b, d, g/, V = /i, y, e, a, o, u/) were recorded with ultrasound. We measured vowel-induced horizontal displacement of the tongue dorsum within the last syllable and compared the resulting coarticulatory patterns between age cohorts and consonantal contexts. Results indicate that the degree of vocalic carryover coarticulation decreases with age. Vocalic prominence within an utterance as well as its change across childhood depended on the postvocalic consonant’s articulatory demands for the tongue dorsum (i.e., its coarticulatory resistance): Low resistant /b/ and /g/ allowed for more vocalic perseveration and a continuous decrease, while the highly resistant /d/ displayed lower coarticulation degrees and discontinuous effects. These findings parallel those in anticipation suggesting a similar organization of anticipatory and carryover coarticulation. Implications for theories of speech production are discussed.
This article examines two so-far-understudied verb doubling constructions in Mandarin Chinese, viz., verb doubling clefts and verb doubling lian…dou. We show that these constructions have the same internal syntax as regular clefts and lian…dou sentences, the doubling effect being epiphenomenal; therefore, we classify them as subtypes of the general cleft and lian…dou constructions, respectively, rather than as independent constructions. Additionally, we also show that, as in many other languages with comparable constructions, the two instances of the verb are part of a single movement chain, which has the peculiarity of allowing Spell-Out of more than one link.
Dutch allows for variation as to whether the first position in the sentence is occupied by the subject or by some other constituent, such as the direct object. In particular situations, however, this commonly observed variation in word order is ‘frozen’ and only the subject appears in first position. We hypothesize that this partial freezing of word order in Dutch can be explained from the dependence of the speaker’s choice of word order on the hearer’s interpretation of this word order. A formal model of this interaction between the speaker’s perspective and the hearer’s perspective is presented in terms of bidirectional Optimality Theory. Empirical predictions of this model regarding the interaction between word order and definiteness are confirmed by a quantitative corpus study.
Left peripheral focus
(2010)
In Czech, German, and many other languages, part of the semantic focus
of the utterance can be moved to the left periphery of the clause. The main generalization is that only the leftmost accented part of the semantic focus can be moved. We propose that movement to the left periphery is generally triggered by an unspecific edge feature of C (Chomsky 2008) and its restrictions can be attributed to requirements of cyclic linearization, modifying the theory of cyclic linearization developed by Fox and Pesetsky (2005). The crucial assumption is that structural accent is a direct consequence of being linearized at merge, thus it is indirectly relevant for (locality restrictions on) movement. The absence of structural accent correlates with given-ness. Given elements may later receive (topic or contrastive) accents, which accounts for fronting in multiple focus/contrastive topic constructions. Without any additional assumptions, the model can account for movement of pragmatically unmarked elements to the left periphery (‘formal fronting’, Frey 2005). Crucially, the analysis makes no reference at all to concepts of information structure in the syntax, in line with the claim of Chomsky (2008) that UG specifies no direct link between syntax and information structure.
The notion of ‘epiphenomenon’ is usually used to exclude certain
aspects of a scientific object because they are considered to be deduced from others. In linguistics, restrictions of the research object were made, invoking the notion of ‘epiphenomenon’, which was partially done with a polemical attitude, and was always responded to polemically. The best-known definition of languages as an epiphenomenon is that proposed by Chomsky, who declared that the specific realisations of language do not warrant scientific attention, but there were early relegations of properties of individual languages to the domain of an epiphenomenon of grammar, to the domain of an art and not a science. These relegations from a certain point of abstraction did advance theories of language, even though they took a point of abstraction that did not correspond to the complexity of language.
Interlocutors typically link their utterances to the discourse environment and enrich communication by linguistic (e.g., information packaging) and extra-linguistic (e.g., eye gaze, gestures) means to optimize information transfer. Psycholinguistic studies underline that ‒for meaning computation‒ listeners profit from linguistic and visual cues that draw their focus of attention to salient information. This dissertation is the first work that examines how linguistic compared to visual salience cues influence sentence comprehension using the very same experimental paradigms and materials, that is, German subject-before-object (SO) and object-before-subject (OS) sentences, across the two cue modalities. Linguistic salience was induced by indicating a referent as the aboutness topic. Visual salience was induced by implicit (i.e., unconscious) or explicit (i.e., shared) manipulations of listeners’ attention to a depicted referent.
In Study 1, a selective, facilitative impact of linguistic salience on the context-sensitive OS word order was found using offline comprehensibility judgments. More precisely, during online sentence processing, this impact was characterized by a reduced sentence-initial Late positivity which reflects reduced processing costs for updating the current mental representation of discourse. This facilitative impact of linguistic salience was not replicated by means of an implicit visual cue (Study 2) shown to modulate word order preferences during sentence production. However, a gaze shift to a depicted referent as an indicator of shared attention eased sentence-initial processing similar to linguistic salience as revealed by reduced reading times (Study 3). Yet, this cue did not modulate the strong subject-antecedent preference during later pronoun resolution like linguistic salience. Taken together, these findings suggest a significant impact of linguistic and visual salience cues on sentence comprehension, which substantiates that both the information delivered via language and via the visual environment is integrated into the mental representation of the discourse; but, the way how salience is induced is crucial to its impact.
This article offers an in-depth analysis of one particular type of meta-talk. It looks at how speakers use the meta-pragmatic claim to have previously communicated ('said' or 'meant') the same as, or the equivalent of, what their interlocutor just said. Through detailed sequential analyses, it is shown that this claim is frequently used as a practice for disarming disaffiliative responses and thus to manage (and often resolve) incipient disagreement. Besides unpacking the precise mechanisms underlying this practice, the paper also takes stock of the various (and partly variable) lexico-morpho-syntactic, prosodic and bodily-visual elements of conduct that recurrently enter into its composition. Since the practice essentially rests on the speaker’s insinuation of having been misunderstood by their co-participant, its relationship to the organization of repair will also be discussed. It is argued that the practice operates precisely at the intersection of stance-management (agreement/disagreement) and repair, and that it exhibits features which reflect this intersectional character. Data are in English.
This article offers an in-depth analysis of one particular type of meta-talk. It looks at how speakers use the meta-pragmatic claim to have previously communicated ('said' or 'meant') the same as, or the equivalent of, what their interlocutor just said. Through detailed sequential analyses, it is shown that this claim is frequently used as a practice for disarming disaffiliative responses and thus to manage (and often resolve) incipient disagreement. Besides unpacking the precise mechanisms underlying this practice, the paper also takes stock of the various (and partly variable) lexico-morpho-syntactic, prosodic and bodily-visual elements of conduct that recurrently enter into its composition. Since the practice essentially rests on the speaker’s insinuation of having been misunderstood by their co-participant, its relationship to the organization of repair will also be discussed. It is argued that the practice operates precisely at the intersection of stance-management (agreement/disagreement) and repair, and that it exhibits features which reflect this intersectional character. Data are in English.
With its transparent orthography, Standard Indonesian is spoken by over 160 million inhabitants and is the primary language of instruction in education and the government in Indonesia. An assessment battery of reading and reading-related skills was developed as a starting point for the diagnosis of dyslexia in beginner learners. Founded on the International Dyslexia Association’s definition of dyslexia, the test battery comprises nine empirically motivated reading and reading-related tasks assessing word reading, pseudoword reading, arithmetic, rapid automatized naming, phoneme deletion, forward and backward digit span, verbal fluency, orthographic choice (spelling), and writing. The test was validated by computing the relationships between the outcomes on the reading-skills and reading-related measures by means of correlation and factor analyses. External variables, i.e., school grades and teacher ratings of the reading and learning abilities of individual students, were also utilized to provide evidence of its construct validity. Four variables were found to be significantly related with reading-skill measures: phonological awareness, rapid naming, spelling, and digit span. The current study on reading development in Standard Indonesian confirms findings from other languages with transparent orthographies and suggests a test battery including preliminary norm scores for screening and assessment of elementary school children learning to read Standard Indonesian.
Das 11. Herbsttreffen Patholinguistik mit dem Schwerpunktthema »Gut gestimmt: Diagnostik und Therapie bei Dysphonie« fand am 18.11.2017 in Potsdam statt. Das Herbsttreffen wird seit 2007 jährlich vom Verband für Patholinguistik e.V. (vpl) durchgeführt. Der vorliegende Tagungsband beinhaltet die Hauptvorträge zum Schwerpunktthema sowie Beiträge zu den Kurzvorträgen »Spektrum Patholinguistik« und der Posterpräsentationen zu weiteren Themen aus der sprachtherapeutischen Forschung und Praxis.
Diese neuartige Einführung in die deutsche Grammatik verbindet schulgrammatisches Wissen und neuere Grammatikmodelle in anschaulicher und verständlicher Weise miteinander. Lehramtsstudierende können sich damit die Kenntnisse und Kompetenzen aneignen, die sie für ihr Studium und ihren künftigen Beruf brauchen, erfahrene Lehrkräfte erhalten wichtige Impulse für neue Wege im Deutschunterricht. Mit den funktional orientierten Erklärungen zum Feldermodell und den zahlreichen systematisch gestalteten Tabellen im Bereich der Verben, Nomen/Nominalgruppen, Präpositionen und Pronomen bekommt die Schulgrammatik eine tragfähige Grundlage. Die Tabellen eignen sich darüber hinaus für DaF-/DaZ-Kurse sowie für die autodidaktische Aneignung des Deutschen als Fremd- oder Zweitsprache. Die neue Auflage wurde gründlich überarbeitet und erweitert.
This study addresses the question of how age of acquisition (AoA) affects grammatical processing, specifically with respect to inflectional morphology, in bilinguals. We examined experimental data of more than 100 participants from the Russian/German community in Berlin, all of whom acquired Russian from birth and German at different ages. Using the cross-modal lexical priming technique, we investigated stem allomorphs of German verbs that encode multiple morphosyntactic features. The results revealed a striking AoA modulation of observed priming patterns, indicating efficient access to morphosyntactic features for early AoAs and a gradual decline with increasing AoAs. In addition, we found a discontinuity in the function relating AoA to morphosyntactic feature access, suggesting a sensitive period for the development of morphosyntax.
Previous cross-modal priming studies showed that lexical decisions to words after a pronoun were facilitated when these words were semantically related to the pronoun’s antecedent. These studies suggested that semantic priming effectively measured antecedent retrieval during coreference. We examined whether these effects extended to implicit reading comprehension using the N400 response. The results of three experiments did not yield strong evidence of semantic facilitation due to coreference. Further, the comparison with two additional experiments showed that N400 facilitation effects were reduced in sentences (vs. word pair paradigms) and were modulated by the case morphology of the prime word. We propose that priming effects in cross-modal experiments may have resulted from task-related strategies. More generally, the impact of sentence context and morphological information on priming effects suggests that they may depend on the extent to which the upcoming input is predicted, rather than automatic spreading activation between semantically related words.
The role of case and animacy in biand monolingual children’s sentence interpretation in German
(2019)
German-speaking children appear to have a strong N1-bias when interpreting non-canonical OVSsentences. During sentence interpretation, especially unambiguous accusative and dative case markers (den ‘the-ACC’ and dem ‘the-DAT’) weaken the N1-bias and help building up sentence interpretation strategies on the basis of morphological cues. Still, the N1-bias prevails beyond the age of five (Brandt et al. 2016, Cristante 2016, Dittmar et al. 2008) and remains until puberty (Lidzba et al. 2013). This paper investigates whether prototypical case-animacy coalitions (denACC + N INANIMATE and demDAT + N ANIMATE ) strengthen a morphologically based sentence interpretation strategy in German. The experiment discussed in this paper tests for effects of such case-animacy coalitions in mono- and bilingual primary school children. 20 German monolinguals, 12 Dutch-German and 17 Russian-German bilinguals with a mean age of 9;6 were tested in a forced-choice off-line experiment. Results indicate that case-animacy coalitions weaken the N1-bias in OVS-conditions in German monolinguals and Dutch-German bilinguals, while no effects were found for Russian-German bilinguals. Together with an analysis of individual differences, these group-specific effects are discussed in terms of a developmental approach that represents a gradual cue strength adjustment process in mono- and bilingual children.
The role of case and animacy in biand monolingual children’s sentence interpretation in German
(2019)
German-speaking children appear to have a strong N1-bias when interpreting non-canonical OVSsentences. During sentence interpretation, especially unambiguous accusative and dative case markers (den ‘the-ACC’ and dem ‘the-DAT’) weaken the N1-bias and help building up sentence interpretation strategies on the basis of morphological cues. Still, the N1-bias prevails beyond the age of five (Brandt et al. 2016, Cristante 2016, Dittmar et al. 2008) and remains until puberty (Lidzba et al. 2013). This paper investigates whether prototypical case-animacy coalitions (denACC + N INANIMATE and demDAT + N ANIMATE ) strengthen a morphologically based sentence interpretation strategy in German. The experiment discussed in this paper tests for effects of such case-animacy coalitions in mono- and bilingual primary school children. 20 German monolinguals, 12 Dutch-German and 17 Russian-German bilinguals with a mean age of 9;6 were tested in a forced-choice off-line experiment. Results indicate that case-animacy coalitions weaken the N1-bias in OVS-conditions in German monolinguals and Dutch-German bilinguals, while no effects were found for Russian-German bilinguals. Together with an analysis of individual differences, these group-specific effects are discussed in terms of a developmental approach that represents a gradual cue strength adjustment process in mono- and bilingual children.
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, das Potenzial lateinamerikanischer Telenovelas als audiovisuelle Medien für den Fremdsprachenunterricht Spanisch und deren Eignung für die Förderung der funktionalen kommunikativen Kompetenz, der interkulturellen kommunikativen Kompetenz und der Medienkompetenz aufzuzeigen. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Untersuchung liegt dabei im lateinamerikanischen Spanisch und der lateinamerikanischen Kultur. Zu diesem Zweck werden ausgewählte Szenen aus der weltweit populärsten kolumbianischen Telenovela Yo soy Betty, la fea analysiert. Es werden zwei Szenen aus dem Arbeitsleben und zwei Szenen aus dem Privatleben in Hinblick auf die funktionale kommunikative Kompetenz untersucht. Des Weiteren werden die kulturellen Elemente in dieser Telenovela während der Analyse geschildert. Schließlich wird die Telenovela mit dem Fokus auf die Medienkompetenz, daher auf die Eigenschaften und Konventionen des Genres Telenovela, hin untersucht.
Predicate focus
(2016)
Die Publikation zu Sprachwandelprozessen im Russischen und Ukrainischen beschreibt eine ausschlaggebende Phase der neueren Sprachgeschichte Russlands und der Ukraine (1985–2008). Im Fokus steht die Anglisierung als eine der Haupttendenzen der aktuellen sprachlichen Destandardisierung europäischer Sprachen. Die Autorin zeigt am Beispiel der Anglisierung in der Werbesprache die Destandardisierung des Russischen und Ukrainischen nach 1985 auf. Diese korpusbasierte Untersuchung umfasst sowohl die quantitative (statistische) als auch die qualitative (systemlinguistische) Analyse des werbesprachlichen Korpus. Die quantitative chronologische Analyse belegt die deutlich stärkere Dynamik der Anglisierung im Ukrainischen nach 1998. Die qualitative Analyse illustriert die unterschiedlichen bzw. gemeinsamen innerlinguistischen Prozesse in beiden Sprachen, insbesondere Anglizismen-Integration und Standardisierungswege.
This paper offers an exploratory Interactional Linguistic account of the role that inferences play in episodes of ordinary conversational interaction. To this end, it systematically reconsiders the conversational practice of using the lexico-syntactic format oh that's right to implicitly claim "just-now" recollection of something previously known, but momentarily confused or forgotten. The analyses reveal that this practice typically occurs as part of a larger sequential pattern that the participants orient to and which serves as a procedure for dealing with, and generating an account for, one participant's production of an inapposite action. As will be shown, the instantiation and progressive realization of this sequential procedure requires local inferential work from the participants. While some facets of this inferential work appear to be shaped by the particular context of the ongoing interaction, others are integral to the workings of the sequence as such. Moreover, the analyses suggest that participants' understanding of oh that's right as embodying an implicit memory claim rests on an inference which is based on a kind of semantic-pragmatic compositionality. The paper thus illustrates how inferences in conversational interaction can be systematically studied and points to the merits of combining an interactional and a linguistic perspective.