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Diffusion of cosmic rays (CRs) is the key process for understanding their propagation and acceleration. We employ the description of spatial separation of magnetic field lines in magnetohydrodynamic turbulence in Lazarian & Vishniac to quantify the divergence of the magnetic field on scales less than the injection scale of turbulence and show that this divergence induces superdiffusion of CR in the direction perpendicular to the mean magnetic field. The perpendicular displacement squared increases, not as the distance x along the magnetic field, which is the case for a regular diffusion, but as the x 3 for freely streaming CRs. The dependence changes to x 3/2 for the CRs propagating diffusively along the magnetic field. In the latter case, we show that it is important to distinguish the perpendicular displacement with respect to the mean field and to the local magnetic field. We consider how superdiffusion changes the acceleration of CRs in shocks and show how it decreases efficiency of the CRs acceleration in perpendicular shocks. We also demonstrate that in the case when the small-scale magnetic field is generated in the pre-shock region, an efficient acceleration can take place for the CRs streaming without collisions along the magnetic loops.
Recent research indicates that non- invasive stimulation of the afferent auricular vagal nerve (tVNS) may modulate various cognitive and affec-tive functions, likely via activation of the locus coeruleus- norepinephrine (LC- NE) system. In a series of ERP studies we found that the attention- related P300 component is enhanced during continuous vagal stimula-tion, compared to sham, which is also related to increased salivary alpha amylase levels (a putative indirect marker for central NE activation). In another study, we investigated the effect of continuous tVNS on the late positive potential (LPP), an electrophysiological index for motivated atten-tion toward emotionally evocative cues, and the effects of tVNS on later recognition memory (1- week delay). Here, vagal stimulation prompted earlier LPP differences (300- 500 ms) between unpleasant and neutral scenes. During retrieval, vagal stimulation significantly improved memory performance for unpleasant, but not neutral pictures, compared to sham stimulation, which was also related to enhanced salivary alpha amylase levels. In line, unpleasant images encoded under tVNS compared to sham stimulation also produced enhanced ERP old/new differences (500- 800 ms) during retrieval indicating better recollection. Taken together, our studies suggest that tVNS facilitates attention, learning and episodic memory, likely via afferent projections to the arousal- modulated LC- NE system. We will, however, also show data that point to critical stimulation parameters (likely duration and frequency) that need to be considered when applying tVNS
Editorial
(2019)
Stress and bone health
(2019)
The impact of social identity and social dominance on the regulation of human growth: A viewpoint
(2019)
Domain-specific physical activity patterns and cardiorespiratory fitness among adults in Germany
(2019)
Background Studies show that occupational physical activity (OPA) has less health-enhancing effects than leisure-time physical activity (LTPA). The spare data available suggests that OPA rarely includes aerobic PAs with little or no enhancing effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) as a possible explanation. This study aims to investigate the associations between patterns of OPA and LTPA and CRF among adults in Germany. Methods 1,204 men and 1,303 women (18-64 years), who participated in the German Health Interview and Examination Survey 2008-2011, completed a standardized sub-maximal cycle ergometer test to estimate maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). Job positions were coded according to the level of physical effort to construct an occupational PA index and categorized as low vs. high OPA. LTPA was assessed via questionnaires and dichotomized in no vs. any LTPA participation. A combined LTPA/OPA variable was used (high OPA/ LTPA, low OPA/LTPA, high OPA/no LTPA, low OPA/no LTPA). Information on potential confounders was obtained via questionnaires (e.g., smoking and education) or physical measurements (e.g., waist circumference). Multi-variable logistic regression was used to analyze associations between OPA/LTPA patterns and VO2max. Results Preliminary analyses showed that less-active men were more likely to have a low VO2max with odds ratios (ORs) of 0.80 for low OPA/LTPA, 1.84 for high OPA/no LTPA and 3.46 for low OPA/no LTPA compared to high OPA/LTPA. The corresponding ORs for women were 1.11 for low OPA/LTPA, 3.99 for high OPA/no LTPA and 2.44 for low OPA/no LTPA, indicating the highest likelihood of low fitness for women working in physically demanding jobs and not engaging in LTPA. Conclusions Findings confirm a strong association between LTPA and CRF and suggest an interaction between OPA and LTPA patterns on CRF within the workforce in Germany. Women without LTPA are at high risk of having a low CRF, especially if they work in physically demanding jobs. Key messages Women not practicing leisure-time physical activity are at risk of having a low cardiorespiratory fitness, especially if they work in physically demanding jobs. Different impact of domains of physical activity should be considered when planning interventions to enhance fitness among the adult population.