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Institute
- Institut für Chemie (678) (remove)
Soft-template strategy enables the fabrication of composite nanomaterials with desired functionalities and structures. In this thesis, soft templates, including poly(ionic liquid) nanovesicles (PIL NVs), self-assembled polystyrene-b-poly(2-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P2VP) particles, and glycopeptide (GP) biomolecules have been applied for the synthesis of versatile composite particles of PILs/Cu, molybdenum disulfide/carbon (MoS2/C), and GP-carbon nanotubes-metal (GP-CNTs-metal) composites, respectively. Subsequently, their possible applications as efficient catalysts in two representative reactions, i.e. CO2 electroreduction (CO2ER) and reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), have been studied, respectively.
In the first work, PIL NVs with a tunable particle size of 50 to 120 nm and a shell thickness of 15 to 60 nm have been prepared via one-step free radical polymerization. By increasing monomer concentration for polymerization, their nanoscopic morphology can evolve from hollow NVs to dense spheres, and finally to directional worms, in which a multi-lamellar packing of PIL chains occurred in all samples. The obtained PIL NVs with varied shell thickness have been in situ functionalized with ultra-small Cu nanoparticles (Cu NPs, 1-3 nm) and subsequently employed as the electrocatalysts for CO2ER. The hollow PILs/Cu composite catalysts exhibit a 2.5-fold enhancement in selectivity towards C1 products compared to the pristine Cu NPs. This enhancement is primarily attributed to the strong electronic interactions between the Cu NPs and the surface functionalities of PIL NVs. This study casts new aspects on using nanostructured PILs as novel electrocatalyst supports in efficient CO2 conversion.
In the second work, a novel approach towards fast degradation of 4-NP has been developed using porous MoS2/C particles as catalysts, which integrate the intrinsically catalytic property of MoS2 with its photothermal conversion capability. Various MoS2/C composite particles have been prepared using assembled PS-b-P2VP block copolymer particles as sacrificed soft templates. Intriguingly, the MoS2/C particles exhibit tailored morphologies including pomegranate-like, hollow, and open porous structures. Subsequently, the photothermal conversion performance of these featured particles has been compared under near infrared (NIR) light irradiation. When employing the open porous MoS2/C particles as the catalyst for the reduction of 4-NP, the reaction rate constant has increased by 1.5-fold under light illumination. This catalytic enhancement mainly results from the open porous architecture and photothermal conversion performance of the MoS2 particles. This proposed strategy offers new opportunities for efficient photothermal-assisted catalysis.
In the third work, a facile and green approach towards the fabrication of GP-CNTs-metal composites has been proposed, which utilizes a versatile GP biomolecule both as a stabilizer for CNTs in water and as a reducing agent for noble metal ions. The abundant hydrogen bonds in GP molecules bestow the formed GP-CNTs with excellent plasticity, enabling the availability of polymorphic CNTs species ranging from dispersion to viscous paste, gel, and even dough by increasing their concentration. The GP molecules can reduce metal precursors at room temperature without additional reducing agents, enabling the in situ immobilization of metal NPs (e.g. Au, Ag, and Pd) on the CNTs surface. The combination of excellent catalytic property of Pd NPs with photothermal conversion capability of CNTs makes the GP-CNTs-Pd composite a promising catalyst for the efficient degradation of 4-NP. The obtained composite displays a 1.6-fold increase in conversion under NIR light illumination in the reduction of 4-NP, mainly owing to the strong light-to-heat conversion effect of CNTs. Overall, the proposed method opens a new avenue for the synthesis of CNTs composite as a sustainable and versatile catalyst platform.
The results presented in the current thesis demonstrate the significance of using soft templates for the synthesis of versatile composites with tailored nanostructure and functionalities. The investigation of these composite nanomaterials in the catalytic reactions reveals their potential in the development of desired catalysts for emerging catalytic processes, e.g. photothermal-assisted catalysis and electrocatalysis.
Hybrid nanomaterials offer the combination of individual properties of different types of nanoparticles. Some strategies for the development of new nanostructures in larger scale rely on the self-assembly of nanoparticles as a bottom-up approach. The use of templates provides ordered assemblies in defined patterns. In a typical soft-template, nanoparticles and other surface-active agents are incorporated into non-miscible liquids. The resulting self-organized dispersions will mediate nanoparticle interactions to control the subsequent self-assembly. Especially interactions between nanoparticles of very different dispersibility and functionality can be directed at a liquid-liquid interface.
In this project, water-in-oil microemulsions were formulated from quasi-ternary mixtures with Aerosol-OT as surfactant. Oleyl-capped superparamagnetic iron oxide and/or silver nanoparticles were incorporated in the continuous organic phase, while polyethyleneimine-stabilized gold nanoparticles were confined in the dispersed water droplets. Each type of nanoparticle can modulate the surfactant film and the inter-droplet interactions in diverse ways, and their combination causes synergistic effects. Interfacial assemblies of nanoparticles resulted after phase-separation. On one hand, from a biphasic Winsor type II system at low surfactant concentration, drop-casting of the upper phase afforded thin films of ordered nanoparticles in filament-like networks. Detailed characterization proved that this templated assembly over a surface is based on the controlled clustering of nanoparticles and the elongation of the microemulsion droplets. This process offers versatility to use different nanoparticle compositions by keeping the surface functionalization, in different solvents and over different surfaces. On the other hand, a magnetic heterocoagulate was formed at higher surfactant concentration, whose phase-transfer from oleic acid to water was possible with another auxiliary surfactant in ethanol-water mixture. When the original components were initially mixed under heating, defined oil-in-water, magnetic-responsive nanostructures were obtained, consisting on water-dispersible nanoparticle domains embedded by a matrix-shell of oil-dispersible nanoparticles.
Herein, two different approaches were demonstrated to form diverse hybrid nanostructures from reverse microemulsions as self-organized dispersions of the same components. This shows that microemulsions are versatile soft-templates not only for the synthesis of nanoparticles, but also for their self-assembly, which suggest new approaches towards the production of new sophisticated nanomaterials in larger scale.
Solar photocatalysis is the one of leading concepts of research in the current paradigm of sustainable chemical industry. For actual practical implementation of sunlight-driven catalytic processes in organic synthesis, a cheap, efficient, versatile and robust heterogeneous catalyst is necessary. Carbon nitrides are a class of organic semiconductors who are known to fulfill these requirements.
First, current state of solar photocatalysis in economy, industry and lab research is overviewed, outlining EU project funding, prospective synthetic and reforming bulk processes, small scale solar organic chemistry, and existing reactor designs and prototypes, concluding feasibility of the approach.
Then, the photocatalytic aerobic cleavage of oximes to corresponding aldehydes and ketones by anionic poly(heptazine imide) carbon nitride is discussed. The reaction provides a feasible method of deprotection and formation of carbonyl compounds from nitrosation products and serves as a convenient model to study chromoselectivity and photophysics of energy transfer in heterogeneous photocatalysis.
Afterwards, the ability of mesoporous graphitic carbon nitride to conduct proton-coupled electron transfer was utilized for the direct oxygenation of 1,3-oxazolidin-2-ones to corresponding 1,3-oxazlidine-2,4-diones. This reaction provides an easier access to a key scaffold of diverse types of drugs and agrochemicals.
Finally, a series of novel carbon nitrides based on poly(triazine imide) and poly(heptazine imide) structure was synthesized from cyanamide and potassium rhodizonate. These catalysts demonstrated a good performance in a set of photocatalytic benchmark reactions, including aerobic oxidation, dual nickel photoredox catalysis, hydrogen peroxide evolution and chromoselective transformation of organosulfur precursors.
Concluding, the scope of carbon nitride utilization for net-oxidative and net-neutral photocatalytic processes was expanded, and a new tunable platform for catalyst synthesis was discovered.
The present thesis focuses on the synthesis of nanostructured iron-based compounds by using β-FeOOH nanospindles and poly(ionic liquid)s (PILs) vesicles as hard and soft templates, respectively, to suppress the shuttle effect of lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) in Li-S batteries. Three types of composites with different nanostructures (mesoporous nanospindle, yolk-shell nanospindle, and nanocapsule) have been synthesized and applied as sulfur host material for Li-S batteries. Their interactions with LiPSs and effects on the electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries have been systematically studied.
In the first part of the thesis, carbon-coated mesoporous Fe3O4 (C@M-Fe3O4) nanospindles have been synthesized to suppress the shuttle effect of LiPSs. First, β-FeOOH nanospindles have been synthesized via the hydrolysis of iron (III) chloride in aqueous solution and after silica coating and subsequent calcination, mesoporous Fe2O3 (M-Fe2O3) have been obtained inside the confined silica layer through pyrolysis of β-FeOOH. After the removal of the silica layer, electron tomography (ET) has been applied to rebuild the 3D structure of the M-Fe2O3 nanospindles. After coating a thin layer of polydopamine (PDA) as carbon source, the PDA-coated M-Fe2O3 particles have been calcinated to synthesize C@M-Fe3O4 nanospindles. With the chemisorption of Fe3O4 and confinement of mesoporous structure to anchor LiPSs, the composite C@M-Fe3O4/S electrode delivers a remaining capacity of 507.7 mAh g-1 at 1 C after 600 cycles.
In the second part of the thesis, a series of iron-based compounds (Fe3O4, FeS2, and FeS) with the same yolk-shell nanospindle morphology have been synthesized, which allows for the direct comparison of the effects of compositions on the electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries. The Fe3O4-carbon yolk-shell nanospindles have been synthesized by using the β-FeOOH nanospindles as hard template. Afterwards, Fe3O4-carbon yolk-shell nanospindles have been used as precursors to obtain iron sulfides (FeS and FeS2)-carbon yolk-shell nanospindles through sulfidation at different temperatures. Using the three types of yolk-shell nanospindles as sulfur host, the effects of compositions on interactions with LiPSs and electrochemical performance in Li-S batteries have been systematically investigated and compared. Benefiting from the chemisorption and catalytic effect of FeS2 particles and the physical confinement of the carbon shell, the FeS2-C/S electrode exhibits the best electrochemical performance with an initial specific discharge capacity of 877.6 mAh g-1 at 0.5 C and a retention ratio of 86.7% after 350 cycles.
In the third part, PILs vesicles have been used as soft template to synthesize carbon nanocapsules embedded with iron nitride particles to immobilize and catalyze LiPSs in Li-S batteries. First, 3-n-decyl-1-vinylimidazolium bromide has been used as monomer to synthesize PILs nanovesicles by free radical polymerization. Assisted by PDA coating route and ion exchange, PIL nanovesicles have been successfully applied as soft template in morphology-maintaining carbonization to prepare carbon nanocapsules embedded with iron nitride nanoparticles (FexN@C). The well-dispersed iron nitride nanoparticles effectively catalyze the conversion of LiPSs to Li2S, owing to their high electrical conductivity and strong chemical binding to LiPSs. The constructed FexN@C/S cathode demonstrates a high initial discharge capacity of 1085.0 mAh g-1 at 0.5 C with a remaining value of 930.0 mAh g-1 after 200 cycles.
The results in the present thesis demonstrate the facile synthetic routes of nanostructured iron-based compounds with controllable morphologies and compositions using soft and hard colloidal templates, which can be applied as sulfur host to suppress the shuttle behavior of LiPSs. The synthesis approaches developed in this thesis are also applicable to fabricating other transition metal-based compounds with porous nanostructures for other applications.
The increasing global population has led to a growing demand for cost-effective and eco-friendly methods of water purification. This demand has reached a peak due to the increasing presence of impurities and pollutants in water and a growing awareness of waterborne diseases. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are effective methods to address these challenges, due to the generation of highly reactive radicals, such as sulfate radical (SO4•-), hydroxyl radical (•OH), and/or superoxide radical (•O2-) in oxidation reactions. Relative to conventional hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-based AOPs for wastewater treatment, the persulfate-related AOPs are receiving increasing attention over the past decades, due to their stronger oxidizing capability and a wider pH working window. Further deployment of the seemingly plausible technology as an alternative for the well-established one in industry, however, necessitates a careful evaluation of compounding factors, such as water matrix effects, toxicological consequences, costs, and engineering challenges, etc. To this end, rational design of efficient and environmentally friendly catalysts constitutes an indispensable pathway to advance persulfate activation efficacy and to elucidate the mechanisms in AOPs, the combined endeavors are expected to provide insightful understanding and guidelines for future studies in wastewater treatment. A dozens of transition metal-based catalysts have been developed for persulfate-related AOPs, while the undesirable metal leaching and poor stability in acidic conditions have been identified as major obstacles. Comparatively, the carbonaceous materials are emerging as alternative candidates, which are characterized by metal-free nature, wide availability, and exceptional resistance to acid and alkali, as well as tunable physicochemical and electronic properties, the combined merits make them an attractive option to overcome the aforementioned limitations in metal-based catalytic systems. This dissertation aims at developing novel carbonaceous materials to boost the activity in peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation processes. Functionalized carbon materials with metal particles or heteroatoms were constructed and further evaluated in terms of their ability to activate PMS for AOPs. The main contents of this thesis are summarized as follows: (1) Iron oxide-loaded biochar: improving stability and alleviating metal leakage Metal leaching constitutes one of the main drawbacks in using transition metals as PMS activators, which is accompanied by the generation of metal-containing sludge, potentially leading to secondary pollution. Meanwhile, the metal nanoparticles are prone to aggregate, causing rapid decay of catalytic performance. The use of carbons as supports for transition metals could mitigate these deficiencies, because the interaction between metals and carbons could in turn disperse and stabilize metal nanoparticles, thus suppressing the metal leaching. In this work, the environmentally benign lignin with its abundant phenolic groups, which is well known to serve as carbon source with high yields and flexibility, was utilized to load Fe ions. The facile low-temperature pre-treatment pyrolytic strategy was employed to construct a green catalyst with iron oxides embedded in Kraft-lignin-derived biochar (termed as γ-Fe2O3@KC). The γ-Fe2O3@KC was capable of activating PMS to generate stable non-radical species (1O2 and Fe (V)=O) and to enhance electron transfer efficiency. A surface-bound reactive complex (catalyst-PMS*) was identified by electrochemical characterizations and discussed with primary surface-bound radical pairs to explain the contradictions between quenching and EPR detection results. The system also showed encouraging reusability for at least 5 times and high stability at pH 3-9. The low concentration of iron in γ-Fe2O3@KC/PMS system implied that the carbon scaffold of biochar substantially alleviated metal leakage. (2) MOF-derived nanocarbon: new carbon crystals Traditional carbon materials are of rather moderate performance in activation PMS, due to the poor electron transfer capacity within the amorphous structure and limited active sites for PMS adsorption. Herein, we established crystalline nanocarbon materials via a simple NaCl-templated strategy using the monoclinic zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) sealed with NaCl crystals as the precursors. Specifically, NaCl captured dual advantages in serving as structure-directing agent during hydrolysis and protective salt reactor to facilitate phase transformation during carbonization. The structure-directing agent NaCl provided a protective and confined space for the evolution of MOF upon carbonization, which led to high doping amounts of nitrogen (N) and oxygen elements (O) in carbon framework (N: 14.16 wt%, O: 9.6 wt%) after calcination at a high temperature of 950 oC. We found that N-O co-doping can activate the chemically inert carbon network and the nearby sp2-hybridized carbon atoms served as active sites for adsorption and activation. Besides, the highly crystallized structure with well-established carbon channels around activated carbon atoms could significantly accelerate electron transfer process after initial adsorption of PMS. As such, this crystalline nanocarbon exhibited excellent catalytic kinetics for various pollutants. (3) MOF-derived 2D carbon layers: enhanced mass/electron transfer The two-dimensional (2D) configuration of carbon-based nanosheets with inherent nanochannels and abundant active sites residing on the layer edges or in between the layers, allowed the accessible interaction and close contact between the substrates and reactants, as well as the dramatically improved electron- and mass-transfer kinetics. In this regard, we developed dual-templating strategy to afford 2D assembly of the crystalline carbons, which found efficiency in reinforcing the interactions between the catalyst surface and foreign pollutants. Specifically, we found that the ice crystals and NaCl promoted the evolution of MOF in a 2D fashion during the freezing casting stage, while the later further allowed the formation of a graphitic surface at high calcination temperature, by virtue of the templating effect of molten salt. Due to the highly retained co-doping amounts, N and O heteroatoms created abundant active sites for PMS activation, the 2D configuration of carbon-based nanosheets enable efficient interaction of PMS and pollutants on the surface, which further boosted the kinetics of degradation.
In dieser Dissertation konnten erfolgreich mechanisch stabile Hydrogele über eine freie radikalische Polymerisation (FRP) in Wasser synthetisiert werden. Dabei diente vor allem das Sulfobetain SPE als Monomer. Dieses wurde mit dem über eine nukleophile Substitution erster bzw. zweiter Ordnung hergestellten Vernetzer TMBEMPA/Br umgesetzt.
Die entstandenen Netzwerke wurden im Gleichgewichtsquellzustand im Wesentlichen mittels Niederfeld-Kernresonanzspektroskopie, Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung (SAXS), Rasterelektronenmikroskopie mit Tieftemperaturtechnik (Kryo-REM), dynamisch-mechanische Analyse (DMA), Rheologie, thermogravimetrische Analyse (TGA) und dynamische Differenzkalorimetrie (DSC) analysiert.
Das hierarchisch aufgebaute Netzwerk wurde anschließend für die matrixgesteuerten Mineralisation von Calciumphosphat und –carbonat genutzt. Über das alternierende Eintauchverfahren (engl. „alternate soaking method“) und der Variation von Mineralisationsparametern, wie pH-Wert, Konzentration c und Temperatur T konnten dann verschiedene Modifikationen des Calciumphosphats generiert werden. Das entstandene Hybridmaterial wurde qualitativ mittels Röntgenpulverdiffraktometrie (XRD), abgeschwächte Totalreflexion–fouriertransformierte Infrarot Spektroskopie (ATR-FTIR), Raman-Spektroskopie, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie (REM) mit energiedispersiver Röntgenspektroskopie (EDXS) und optischer Mikroskopie (OM) als auch quantitative mittels Gravimetrie und TGA analysiert.
Für die potentielle Verwendung in der Medizintechnik, z.B. als Implantatmaterial, ist die grundlegende Einschätzung der Wechselwirkung zwischen Hydrogel bzw. Hybridmaterial und verschiedener Zelltypen unerlässlich. Dazu wurden verschiedene Zelltypen, wie Einzeller, Bakterien und adulte Stammzellen verwendet. Die Wechselwirkung mit Peptidsequenzen von Phagen komplettiert das biologische Unterkapitel.
Hydrogele sind mannigfaltig einsetzbar. Diese Arbeit fasst daher weitere Projektperspektiven, auch außerhalb des biomedizinischem Anwendungsspektrums, auf. So konnten erste Ansätze zur serienmäßige bzw. maßgeschneiderte Produktion über das „Inkjet“ Verfahren erreicht werden. Um dies ermöglichen zu können wurden erfolgreich weitere Synthesestrategien, wie die Photopolymerisation und die redoxinitiierte Polymerisation, ausgenutzt. Auch die Eignung als Filtermaterial oder Superabsorber wurde analysiert.
Layered structures are ubiquitous in nature and industrial products, in which individual layers could have different mechanical/thermal properties and functions independently contributing to the performance of the whole layered structure for their relevant application. Tuning each layer affects the performance of the whole layered system.
Pores are utilized in various disciplines, where low density, but large surfaces are demanded. Besides, open and interconnected pores would act as a transferring channel for guest chemical molecules. The shape of pores influences compression behavior of the material. Moreover, introducing pores decreases the density and subsequently the mechanical strength. To maintain defined mechanical strength under various stress, porous structure can be reinforced by adding reinforcement agent such as fiber, filler or layered structure to bear the mechanical stress on demanded application.
In this context, this thesis aimed to generate new functions in bilayer systems by combining layers having different moduli and/or porosity, and to develop suitable processing techniques to access these structures.
Manufacturing processes of layered structures employ often organic solvents mostly causing environmental pollution. In this regard, the studied bilayer structures here were manufactured by processes free of organic solvents.
In this thesis, three bilayer systems were studied to answer the individual questions.
First, while various methods of introducing pores in melt-phase are reported for one-layer constructs with simple geometry, can such methods be applied to a bilayer structure, giving two porous layers?
This was addressed with Bilayer System 1. Two porous layers were obtained from melt-blending of two different polyurethanes (PU) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in a co-continuous phase followed by sequential injection molding and leaching the PVA phase in deionized water. A porosity of 50 ± 5% with a high interconnectivity was obtained, in which the pore sizes in both layers ranged from 1 µm to 100 µm with an average of 22 µm in both layers. The obtained pores were tailored by applying an annealing treatment at relevant high temperatures of 110 °C and 130 °C, which allowed the porosity to be kept constant. The disadvantage of this system is that a maximum of 50% porosity could be reached and removal of leaching material in the weld line section of both layers is not guaranteed. Such a construct serves as a model for bilayer porous structure for determining structure-property relationships with respect to the pore size, porosity and mechanical properties of each layer. This fabrication method is also applicable to complex geometries by designing a relevant mold for injection molding.
Secondly, utilizing scCO2 foaming process at elevated temperature and pressure is considered as a green manufacturing process. Employing this method as a post-treatment can alter the history orientation of polymer chains created by previous fabrication methods. Can a bilayer structure be fabricated by a combination of sequential injection molding and scCO2 foaming process, in which a porous layer is supported by a compact layer?
Such a construct (Bilayer System 2) was generated by sequential injection molding of a PCL (Tm ≈ 58 °C) layer and a PLLA (Tg ≈ 58 °C) layer. Soaking this structure in the autoclave with scCO2 at T = 45 °C and P = 100 bar led to the selective foaming of PCL with a porosity of 80%, while the PLA layer was kept compact. The scCO2 autoclave led to the formation of a porous core and skin layer of the PCL, however, the degree of crystallinity of PLLA layer increased from 0 to 50% at the defined temperature and pressure. The microcellular structure of PCL as well as the degree of crystallinity of PLLA were controlled by increasing soaking time.
Thirdly, wrinkles on surfaces in micro/nano scale alter the properties, which are surface-related. Wrinkles are formed on a surface of a bilayer structure having a compliant substrate and a stiff thin film. However, the reported wrinkles were not reversible. Moreover, dynamic wrinkles in nano and micro scale have numerous examples in nature such as gecko foot hair offering reversible adhesion and an ability of lotus leaves for self-cleaning altering hydrophobicity of the surface. It was envisioned to imitate this biomimetic function on the bilayer structure, where self-assembly on/off patterns would be realized on the surface of this construct.
In summary, developing layered constructs having different properties/functions in the individual layer or exhibiting a new function as the consequence of layered structure can give novel insight for designing layered constructs in various disciplines such as packaging and transport industry, aerospace industry and health technology.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Energie induzierte Nanopartikel-Substrat Interaktionen untersucht. Dazu wurden Goldnanopartikelanordnungen (AuNPA) auf verschiedenen Silizium-basierten Substraten hergestellt und der Einfluss eines Energieeintrages, genauer gesagt einer thermischen Behandlung oder des Metall-assistierten chemischen Ätzens (MaCE) getestet. Die Nanopartikelanordnungen, welche für die thermische Behandlung eingesetzt wurden, wurden nass-chemisch in Toluol synthetisiert, mit Thiol-terminiertem Polystyrol funktionalisiert und mittels Schleuderbeschichtung auf verschiedenen Substraten (drei Gläser und ein Siliziumwafer) in quasi-hexagonalen Mustern angeordnet. Diese AuNP-Anordnungen wurden mit Temperaturen zwischen 475 °C – 792 °C über verschiedene Zeiträume thermisch behandelt. Generell sanken die Nanopartikel in die Substrate ein, und es wurde festgestellt, dass mit Erhöhung der Glasübergangstemperatur der Substrate die Einsinktiefe der Nanopartikel abnahm. Die AuNPA auf Siliziumwafern wurden auf Temperaturen von 700 °C – 900 °C erhitzt. Die Goldnanopartikel sanken dabei bis zu 2,5 nm in das Si-Substrat ein. Ein Sintern der Nanopartikel fand ab einer Temperatur über 660 °C statt. Welcher Sintermechanismus der dominante ist konnte abschließend nicht eindeutig geklärt werden.
Für die Untersuchung des Einflusses des zweiten Energieeintrages mittels MaCE wurden AuNPA sowie Goldkern-Silberschale-Anordnungen auf Siliziumsubstraten genutzt. Die AuNPA wurden mit Hilfe von Poly-N-Isopropylacrylamid Mikrogelen und Natriumcitrat-stabilisierten Goldnanopartikeln (Na-AuNP) bzw. Tetrachloridogoldsäure (TCG) präpariert. Es ergaben sich Nanopartikelanordnungen mit hemisphärischen Partikeln (aus Na-AuNP) und zum anderen Nanopartikelanordnungen mit sphärischen Partikeln (aus TCG). Durch eine anschließende Silberwachstumsreaktion konnten dann die dazugehörigen Goldkern-Silberschale Nanopartikelanordnungen erhalten werden. Beim MaCE konnten signifikante Unterschiede im Verhalten dieser vier Nanopartikelanordnungen festgestellt werden, z.B. mussten bei den hemisphärischen Partikelanordnungen höhere Wasserstoffperoxidkonzentrationen (0,70 M – 0,91 M) als bei den sphärischen Partikelanordnungen (0,08 M – 0,32 M) für das Ätzen eingesetzt werden, um ein Einsinken der Nanopartikel in das Substrat zu erreichen.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden die erstmaligen Totalsynthesen der Arylnaphthalen-Lignane Alashinol D, Vitexdoin C, Vitrofolal E, Noralashinol C1 und Ternifoliuslignan E vorgestellt. Der Schlüsselschritt der entwickelten Methode, basiert auf einer regioselektiven intramolekularen Photo-Dehydro-Diels-Alder (PDDA)-Reaktion, die mittels UV-Strahlung im Durchflussreaktor durchgeführt wurde. Bei der Synthese der PDDA-Vorläufer (Diarylsuberate) wurde eine Synthesestrategie nach dem Baukastenprinzip verfolgt. Diese ermöglicht die Darstellung asymmetrischer komplexer Systeme aus nur wenigen Grundbausteinen und die Totalsynthese einer Vielzahl an Lignanen. In systematischen Voruntersuchungen konnte zudem die klare Überlegenheit der intra- gegenüber der intermolekularen PDDA-Reaktion aufgezeigt werden. Dabei stellte sich eine Verknüpfung der beiden Arylpropiolester über einen Korksäurebügel, in para-Position, als besonders effizient heraus. Werden asymmetrisch substituierte Diarylsuberate, bei denen einer der endständigen Estersubstituenten durch eine Trimethylsilyl-Gruppe oder ein Wasserstoffatom ersetzt wurde, verwendet, durchlaufen diese Systeme eine regioselektive Cyclisierung und als Hauptprodukt werden Naphthalenophane mit einem Methylester in 3-Position erhalten. Mit Hilfe von umfangreichen Experimenten zur Funktionalisierung der 4-Position, konnte zudem gezeigt werden, dass die Substitution der nucleophilen Cycloallen-Intermediate, während der PDDA-Reaktion, generell durch die Zugabe von N-Halogen-Succinimiden möglich ist. In Anbetracht der geringen Ausbeuten haben diese intermolekularen Abfangreaktionen, jedoch keinen präparativen Nutzen für die Totalsynthesen von Lignanen. Mit dem Ziel die allgemeinen photochemischen Reaktionsbedingungen zu optimieren, wurde erstmalig die triplettsensibilisierte PDDA-Reaktion vorgestellt. Durch die Verwendung von Xanthon als Sensibilisator wurde der Einsatz von effizienteren UVA-Lichtquellen ermöglicht, wodurch die Gefahr einer Photozersetzung durch Überbestrahlung minimiert wurde. Im Vergleich zur direkten Anregung mit UVB-Strahlung, konnten die Ausbeuten mit indirekter Anregung durch einen Photokatalysator signifikant gesteigert werden. Die grundlegenden Erkenntnisse und die entwickelten Synthesestrategien dieser Arbeit, können dazu beitragen zukünftig die Erschließung neuer pharmakologisch interessanter Lignane voranzutreiben.
1 Bisher ist nur die semisynthetische Darstellung von Noralashinol C ausgehend von Hydroxymatairesinol literaturbekannt.
Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) are promising energy storage devices by asymmetrically combining anode with a high energy density close to lithium-ion batteries and cathode with a high power density and long-term stability close to supercapacitors. For the further improvement of LICs, the development of electrode materials with hierarchical porosity, nitrogen-rich lithiophilic sites, and good electrical conductivity is essential. Nitrogen-rich all-carbon composite hybrids are suitable for these conditions along with high stability and tunability, resulting in a breakthrough to achieve the high performance of LICs. In this thesis, two different all-carbon composites are suggested to unveil how the pore structure of lithiophilic composites influences the properties of LICs. Firstly, the composite with 0-dimensional zinc-templated carbon (ZTC) and hexaazatriphenylene-hexacarbonitrile (HAT) is examined how the pore structure is connected to Li-ion storage property as LIC electrode. As the pore structure of HAT/ZTC composite is easily tunable depending on the synthetic factor and ratio of each component, the results will allow deeper insights into Li-ion dynamics in different porosity, and low-cost synthesis by optimization of the HAT:ZTC ratio. Secondly, the composite with 1-dimensional nanoporous carbon fiber (ACF) and cost-effective melamine is proposed as a promising all-carbon hybrid for large-scale application. Since ACF has ultra-micropores, the numerical structure-property relationships will be calculated out not only from total pore volume but more specifically from ultra-micropore volume. From these results above, it would be possible to understand how hybrid all-carbon composites interact with lithium ions in nanoscale as well as how structural properties affect the energy storage performance. Based on this understanding derived from the simple materials modeling, it will provide a clue to design the practical hybrid materials for efficient electrodes in LICs.
Technologically important, environmentally friendly InP quantum dots (QDs) typically used as green and red emitters in display devices can achieve exceptional photoluminescence quantum yields (PL QYs) of near-unity (95-100%) when the-state-of-the-art core/shell heterostructure of the ZnSe inner/ZnS outer shell is elaborately applied. Nevertheless, it has only led to a few industrial applications as QD liquid crystal display (QD–LCD) which is applied to blue backlight units, even though QDs has a lot of possibilities that able to realize industrially feasible applications, such as QD light-emitting diodes (QD‒LEDs) and luminescence solar concentrator (LSC), due to their functionalizable characteristics.
Before introducing the main research, the theoretical basis and fundamentals of QDs are described in detail on the basis of the quantum mechanics and experimental synthetic results, where a concept of QD and colloidal QD, a type-I core/shell structure, a transition metal doped semiconductor QDs, the surface chemistry of QD, and their applications (LSC, QD‒LEDs, and EHD jet printing) are sequentially elucidated for better understanding. This doctoral thesis mainly focused on the connectivity between QD materials and QD devices, based on the synthesis of InP QDs that are composed of inorganic core (core/shell heterostructure) and organic shell (surface ligands on the QD surface). In particular, as for the former one (core/shell heterostructure), the ZnCuInS mid-shell as an intermediate layer is newly introduced between a Cu-doped InP core and a ZnS shell for LSC devices. As for the latter one (surface ligands), the ligand effect by 1-octanethiol and chloride ion are investigated for the device stability in QD‒LEDs and the printability of electro-hydrodynamic (EHD) jet printing system, in which this research explores the behavior of surface ligands, based on proton transfer mechanism on the QD surface.
Chapter 3 demonstrates the synthesis of strain-engineered highly emissive Cu:InP/Zn–Cu–In–S (ZCIS)/ZnS core/shell/shell heterostructure QDs via a one-pot approach. When this unconventional combination of a ZCIS/ZnS double shelling scheme is introduced to a series of Cu:InP cores with different sizes, the resulting Cu:InP/ZCIS/ZnS QDs with a tunable near-IR PL range of 694–850 nm yield the highest-ever PL QYs of 71.5–82.4%. These outcomes strongly point to the efficacy of the ZCIS interlayer, which makes the core/shell interfacial strain effectively alleviated, toward high emissivity. The presence of such an intermediate ZCIS layer is further examined by comparative size, structural, and compositional analyses. The end of this chapter briefly introduces the research related to the LSC devices, fabricated from Cu:InP/ZCIS/ZnS QDs, currently in progress.
Chapter 4 mainly deals with ligand effect in 1-octanethiol passivation of InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs in terms of incomplete surface passivation during synthesis. This chapter demonstrates the lack of anionic carboxylate ligands on the surface of InP/ZnSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs), where zinc carboxylate ligands can be converted to carboxylic acid or carboxylate ligands via proton transfer by 1-octanethiol. The as-synthesized QDs initially have an under-coordinated vacancy surface, which is passivated by solvent ligands such as ethanol and acetone. Upon exposure of 1-octanethiol to the QD surface, 1-octanthiol effectively induces the surface binding of anionic carboxylate ligands (derived from zinc carboxylate ligands) by proton transfer, which consequently exchanges ethanol and acetone ligands that bound on the incomplete QD surface. The systematic chemical analyses, such as thermogravimetric analysis‒mass spectrometry and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, directly show the interplay of surface ligands, and it associates with QD light-emitting diodes (QD‒LEDs).
Chapter 5 shows the relation between material stability of QDs and device stability of QD‒LEDs through the investigation of surface chemistry and shell thickness. In typical III–V colloidal InP quantum dots (QDs), an inorganic ZnS outermost shell is used to provide stability when overcoated onto the InP core. However, this work presents a faster photo-degradation of InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs with a thicker ZnS shell than that with a thin ZnS shell when 1-octanethiol was applied as a sulfur source to form ZnS outmost shell. Herein, 1-octanethiol induces the form of weakly-bound carboxylate ligand via proton transfer on the QD surface, resulting in a faster degradation at UV light even though a thicker ZnS shell was formed onto InP/ZnSe QDs. Detailed insight into surface chemistry was obtained from proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis–mass spectrometry. However, the lifetimes of the electroluminescence devices fabricated from InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs with a thick or a thin ZnS shell show surprisingly the opposite result to the material stability of QDs, where the QD light-emitting diodes (QD‒LEDs) with a thick ZnS shelled QDs maintained its luminance more stable than that with a thin ZnS shelled QDs. This study elucidates the degradation mechanism of the QDs and the QD light-emitting diodes based on the results and discuss why the material stability of QDs is different from the lifetime of QD‒LEDs.
Chapter 6 suggests a method how to improve a printability of EHD jet printing when QD materials are applied to QD ink formulation, where this work introduces the application of GaP mid-shelled InP QDs as a role of surface charge in EHD jet printing technique. In general, GaP intermediate shell has been introduced in III–V colloidal InP quantum dots (QDs) to enhance their thermal stability and quantum efficiency in the case of type-I core/shell/shell heterostructure InP/GaP/ZnSeS QDs. Herein, these highly luminescent InP/GaP/ZnSeS QDs were synthesized and applied to EHD jet printing, by which this study demonstrates that unreacted Ga and Cl ions on the QD surface induce the operating voltage of cone jet and cone jet formation to be reduced and stabilized, respectively. This result indicates GaP intermediate shell not only improves PL QY and thermal stability of InP QDs but also adjusts the critical flow rate required for cone-jet formation. In other words, surface charges of quantum dots can have a significant role in forming cone apex in the EHD capillary nozzle. For an industrially convenient validation of surface charges on the QD surface, Zeta potential analyses of QD solutions as a simple method were performed, as well as inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) for a composition of elements.
Beyond the generation of highly emissive InP QDs with narrow FWHM, these studies talk about the connection between QD material and QD devices not only to make it a vital jumping-off point for industrially feasible applications but also to reveal from chemical and physical standpoints the origin that obstructs the improvement of device performance experimentally and theoretically.
Functional materials, also called "Smart Materials", are described by their ability to fulfill a desired task through targeted interaction with its environment. Due to this functional integration, such materials are of increased interest, especially in areas where the increasing micronization of components is required. Modern manufacturing processes (e.g. microfluidics) and the availability of a wide variety of functional materials (e.g. shape memory materials) now enable the production of particle-based switching components. This category includes micropumps and microvalves, whose basic function is the active control of liquid flows. One approach in realizing those microcomponents as pursued by this work, enables variable size-switching of water-filled microballoons by implementing a stimulus-sensitive switching motif in the capsule's membrane shell, while being under the influence of a constant driving force. The switching motif with its gatekeeper function has a critical influence on one or more material parameters, which modulate the capsule's resistance against the driving force in microballoon expansion process. The advantage of this concept is that even non-variable analyte conditions, such as concentration levels of ions, can be capitalized to generate external force fields that, under the control of the membrane, cause an inflation of the microballoon by an osmotically driven water influx. In case of osmotic pressure gradients as the driving force for the capsule expansion, material parameters associated with the gatekeeper function are specifically the permeability and the mechanical stiffness of the shell material. While a modulation of the shell permeability could be utilized to kinetically impede the water influx on large time scales, a modulation of the shell's mechanical stiffness even might be utilized to completely prevent the capsule inflation due to a possible non-deformability beneath a certain threshold pressure. In polymer networks, which are a suitable material class for the demanded capsule shell because of their excellent elasticity, both the permeability and the mechanical properties are strongly influenced by the crystallinity of the material. Since the permeability is effectively reduced with increasing crystallinity, while the mechanical stiffness is simultaneously greatly increased, both effects point in the same direction in terms of their functional relationship. For this reason and due to a reversible and contactless modulation of the membrane crystallinity by heat input, crystallites may be suitable switching motifs for controlling the capsule expansion. As second design element of reversible expandable microballoons, the capsule geometry, defined by an aqueous core enveloped by the temperature-sensitive polymer network membrane, should allow an osmotic pressure gradient across the membrane layer. The strength of the inflation pressure and the associated inflation velocity upon membrane melting should be controlled by the salt concentration within the aqueous core, while a turn in the osmotic gradient should furthermore allow the reversible process of capsule deflation. Therefore, it should be possible to build either microvalves and micropumps, while their intended action of either pumping or valving is determined by their state of expansion and the direction of the osmotic pressure gradient.. Microballoons of approximately 300 µm in diameter were formed via droplet-based microfluidics from double-emulsion templates (w/o/w). The elastomeric capsule membrane was formed by photo-crosslinking of methacrylate (MA) functionalized oligo(ε-caprolactone) precursors (≈ 3.8 MA-arms, Mn ≈ 12000 g mol-1) within the organic medium layer (o) via UV-exposure after droplet-formation. After removal of the toluene/chloroform mixture by slow extraction via the continuous aqueous phase, the capsules solidified under the development of a characteristic "mushroom"-like shape at specific experimental conditions (e.g. λ = 308 nm, 57 mJ·s-1·cm-2, 16 min). It could be furthermore shown that in dependency to the process parameters: oligomer concentration and curing-time also spherical capsules were accessible. Long curing-times and high oligomer concentrations at a fixed light-intensity favored the formation of "mushroom"-like capsules, whereas the contrary led to spherical shaped capsules. A comparative study on thin polymer network films of same composition and equal treatment proved a correlation between the film's crosslink density and their contraction capability, while stronger crosslinked polymer networks showed a stronger contraction after solvent removal. In combination with observations during capsule solidification via light-microscopy, where a continuous shaping from almost spherical crosslinked templates to "mushroom"-shaped and solidified capsules was stated, the following mechanism was proposed. In case of low oligomer contents and short curing-times, the contraction of the capsule shell during solvent removal is strongly diminished due to a low degree of crosslinking. Therefore, the solidifying shell could freely collapse onto the aqueous core. In the other case, high oligomer concentrations and long curing-times will favor the formation of highly crosslinked capsule membranes with a strong contraction capability. Due to an observed decentered location of the aqueous core within the swollen polymer network, an uneven radial stress along the capsule's circumference is exerted to the incompressible core. This lead to an uneven contraction during solvent removal and a directed flow of the core fluid into the direction of the minimal stress vector. In consequence, the initially thicker spherical cap contracts, whereas the opposing thinner spherical cap get stretched. The "mushroom"-shape over some advantages over their spherical shaped counterparts, why they were selected for the further experiments. Besides the necessity of a high density of crosslinking for the purpose of extraordinary elasticity and toughness, the form-anisotropy promotes a faster microballoon expandability due to a partial reduction of the membrane thickness. Additionally, pre-stretched regions of thin thickness might provide a better resistance against inflation pressure than spherical but non-stretched capsules of equal membrane thickness. The resulting "mushroom"-shaped microcapsules exhibited a melting point of Tm ≈ 50 - 60 °C and a degree of crystallinity of Xc ≈ 29 - 38 % depending on the membrane thickness and internal salt content, which is slightly lower than for the non-crosslinked oligomer and reasoned by a limited chain mobility upon crosslinking. Nonetheless, the melting transition of the polymer network was associated with a strong drop in its mechanical stiffness, which was shown to have a strong influence on the osmotic driven expansion of the microcapsules. Capsules that were subjected to osmotic pressures between 1.5 and 4.7 MPa did not expand if the temperature was well below the melting point of the capsule's membrane, i.e. at room temperature. In contrast, a continuous expansion, while approaching asymptotically to a final capsule size, was observed if the temperature exceeded the melting point, i.e. 60 °C. Microballoons, which were kept for 56 days at ∆Π = 1.5 MPa and room temperature, did not change significantly in diameter, why the impact of the mechanical stiffness on the expansion behavior is considered to be the greater than the influence of the shell permeability. The time-resolved expansion behavior of the microballoons above their Tm was subsequently modeled, using difusion equations that were corrected for shape anisotropy and elastic restoring forces. A shape-related and expansion dependent pre-factor was used to dynamically address the influence of the shell thickness differences along the circumference on the inflation velocity, whereas the microballoon's elastic contraction upon inflation was rendered by the inclusion of a hyperelastic constitutive model. An important finding resulting from this model was the pronounced increase in inflation velocity compared to hypothetical capsules with a homogeneous shell thickness, which stresses the benefit of employing shape anisotropic balloon-like capsules in this study. Furthermore, the model was able to predict the finite expandability on basis of entropy-elastic recovery forces and strain-hardening effects. A comparison of six different microballoons with different shell thicknesses and internal salt contents showed the linear relationship between the volumetric expansion, the shell thickness and the applied osmotic pressure, as represented by the model. As the proposed model facilitates the prediction of the expansion kinetics depending on the membranes mechanical and diffusional characteristics, it might be a screening tool for future material selections. In course of the microballoon expansion process, capsules of intermediate diameters could be isolated by recrystallization of the membrane, which is mainly caused by a restoration of the membrane's mechanical stiffness and is otherwise difficult to achieve with other stimuli-sensitive systems. The capsule's crystallinity of intermediate expansion states was nearly unchanged, whereas the lamellar crystal size tends to decreased with the expansion ratio. Therefore, it was assumed that the elastic modulus was only minimally altered and might increased due to the networks segment-chain extension. In addition to the volume increase achieved by inflation, a turn in the osmotic gradient also facilitated the reversible deflation, which was shown in inflation/deflation cycles. These both characteristics of the introduced microballoons are important parameter regarding the realization of micropumps and microvalves. The fixation of expanded microcapsules via recrystallization enabled the storage of entropy-elastic strain-energy, which could be utilized for pumping actions in non-aqueous media. Here, the pumping velocity depended on both, the type of surrounding medium and the applied temperature. Surrounding media that supported the fast transport of pumped liquid showed an accelerated deflation, while high temperatures further accelerate the pumping velocity. Very fast rejection of the incorporated payload was furthermore realized with pierced expanded microballoons, which were subjected to temperatures above their Tm. The possible fixation of intermediate particle sizes provide opportunities for vent constructions that allowed the precise adjustment of specific flow-rates and multiple valve openings and closings. A valve construction was realized by the insertion of a single or multiple microballoons in a microfluidic channel. A complete and a partial closing of the microballoon-valves was demonstrated as a function of the heating period. In this context, a difference between the inflation and deflation velocity was stated, summarizing slower expansion kinetics. Overall, microballoons, which presented both on-demand pumping and reversible valving by a temperature-triggered change in the capsule's volume, might be suitable components that help to design fully integrated LOC devices, due to the implementation of the control switch and controllable inflation/deflation kinetics. In comparison to other state of the art stimuli-sensitive materials, one has to highlight the microballoons capability of stabilizing almost continuously intermediate capsule sizes by simple recrystallization of the microballoon's membrane.
The urge of light utilization in fabrication of materials is as encouraging as challenging. Steadily increasing energy consumption in accordance with rapid population growth, is requiring a corresponding solution within the same rate of occurrence speed. Therefore, creating, designing and manufacturing materials that can interact with light and in further be applicable as well as disposable in photo-based applications are very much under attention of researchers. In the era of sustainability for renewable energy systems, semiconductor-based photoactive materials have received great attention not only based on solar and/or hydrocarbon fuels generation from solar energy, but also successful stimulation of photocatalytic reactions such as water splitting, pollutant degradation and organic molecule synthesisThe turning point had been reached for water splitting with an electrochemical cell consisting of TiO2-Pt electrode illuminated by UV light as energy source rather than an external voltage, that successfully pursued water photolysis by Fujishima and Honda in 1972. Ever since, there has been a great deal of interest in research of semiconductors (e.g. metal oxide, metal-free organic, noble-metal complex) exhibiting effective band gap for photochemical reactions. In the case of environmental friendliness, toxicity of metal-based semiconductors brings some restrictions in possible applications. Regarding this, very robust and ‘earth-abundant’ organic semiconductor, graphitic carbon nitride has been synthesized and successfully applied in photoinduced applications as novel photocatalyst. Properties such as suitable band gap, low charge carrier recombination and feasibility for scaling up, pave the way of advance combination with other catalysts to gather higher photoactivity based on compatible heterojunction.
This dissertation aims to demonstrate a series of combinations between organic semiconductor g-CN and polymer materials that are forged through photochemistry, either in synthesis or in application. Fabrication and design processes as well as applications performed in accordance to the scope of thesis will be elucidated in detail. In addition to UV light, more attention is placed on visible light as energy source with a vision of more sustainability and better scalability in creation of novel materials and solar energy based applications.
Facing the environmental crisis, new technologies are needed to sustain our society. In this context, this thesis aims to describe the properties and applications of carbon-based sustainable materials. In particular, it reports the synthesis and characterization of a wide set of porous carbonaceous materials with high nitrogen content obtained from nucleobases. These materials are used as cathodes for Li-ion capacitors, and a major focus is put on the cathode preparation, highlighting the oxidation resistance of nucleobase-derived materials. Furthermore, their catalytic properties for acid/base and redox reactions are described, pointing to the role of nitrogen speciation on their surfaces. Finally, these materials are used as supports for highly dispersed nickel loading, activating the materials for carbon dioxide electroreduction.
Despite the popularity of thermoresponsive polymers, much is still unknown about their behavior, how it is triggered, and what factors influence it, hindering the full exploitation of their potential. One particularly puzzling phenomenon is called co-nonsolvency, in which a polymer is soluble in two individual solvents, but counter-intuitively becomes insoluble in mixtures of both. Despite the innumerous potential applications of such systems, including actuators, viscosity regulators and as carrier structures, this field has not yet been extensively studied apart from the classical example of poly(N isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPAM) in mixtures of water and methanol. Therefore, this thesis focuses on evaluating how changes in the chemical structure of the polymers impact the thermoresponsive, aggregation and co-nonsolvency behaviors of both homopolymers and amphiphilic block copolymers. Within this scope, both the synthesis of the polymers and their characterization in solution is investigated. Homopolymers were synthesized by conventional free radical polymerization, whereas block copolymers were synthesized by consecutive reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerizations. The synthesis of the monomers N isopropyl methacrylamide (NIPMAM) and N vinyl isobutyramide (NVIBAM), as well as a few chain transfer agents is also covered. Through turbidimetry measurements, the thermoresponsive and co-nonsolvency behavior of PNIPMAM and PNVIBAM homopolymers is then compared to the well-known PNIPAM, in aqueous solutions with 9 different organic co-solvents. Additionally, the effects of end-groups, molar mass, and concentration are investigated. Despite the similarity of their chemical structures, the 3 homopolymers show significant differences in transition temperatures and some divergences in their co-nonsolvency behavior. More complex systems are also evaluated, namely amphiphilic di- and triblock copolymers of PNIPAM and PNIPMAM with polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate) hydrophobic blocks. Dynamic light scattering is used to evaluate their aggregation behavior in aqueous and mixed aqueous solutions, and how it is affected by the chemical structure of the blocks, the chain architecture, presence of cosolvents and polymer concentration. The results obtained shed light into the thermoresponsive, co-nonsolvency and aggregation behavior of these polymers in solution, providing valuable information for the design of systems with a desired aggregation behavior, and that generate targeted responses to temperature and solvent mixture changes.
The importance of carbohydrate structures is enormous due to their ubiquitousness in our lives. The development of so-called glycomaterials is the result of this tremendous significance. These are not exclusively used for research into fundamental biological processes, but also, among other things, as inhibitors of pathogens or as drug delivery systems. This work describes the development of glycomaterials involving the synthesis of glycoderivatives, -monomers and -polymers. Glycosylamines were synthesized as precursors in a single synthesis step under microwave irradiation to significantly shorten the usual reaction time. Derivatization at the anomeric position was carried out according to the methods developed by Kochetkov and Likhorshetov, which do not require the introduction of protecting groups. Aminated saccharide structures formed the basis for the synthesis of glycomonomers in β-configuration by methacrylation. In order to obtain α-Man-based monomers for interactions with certain α-Man-binding lectins, a monomer synthesis by Staudinger ligation was developed in this work, which also does not require protective groups. Modification of the primary hydroxyl group of a saccharide was accomplished by enzyme-catalyzed synthesis. Ribose-containing cytidine was transesterified using the lipase Novozym 435 and microwave irradiation. The resulting monomer synthesis was optimized by varying the reaction partners. To create an amide bond instead of an ester bond, protected cytidine was modified by oxidation followed by amide coupling to form the monomer. This synthetic route was also used to isolate the monomer from its counterpart guanosine. After obtaining the nucleoside-based monomers, they were block copolymerized using the RAFT method. Pre-synthesized pHPMA served as macroCTA to yield cytidine- or guanosine-containing block copolymer. These isolated block copolymers were then investigated for their self-assembly behavior using UV-Vis, DLS and SEM to serve as a potential thermoresponsive drug delivery system.
The increasing demand for energy in the current technological era and the recent political decisions about giving up on nuclear energy diverted humanity to focus on alternative environmentally friendly energy sources like solar energy. Although silicon solar cells are the product of a matured technology, the search for highly efficient and easily applicable materials is still ongoing. These properties made the efficiency of halide perovskites comparable with silicon solar cells for single junctions within a decade of research. However, the downside of halide perovskites are poor stability and lead toxicity for the most stable ones.
On the other hand, chalcogenide perovskites are one of the most promising absorber materials for the photovoltaic market, due to their elemental abundance and chemical stability against moisture and oxygen. In the search of the ultimate solar absorber material, combining the good optoelectronic properties of halide perovskites with the stability of chalcogenides could be the promising candidate.
Thus, this work investigates new techniques for the synthesis and design of these novel chalcogenide perovskites, that contain transition metals as cations, e.g., BaZrS3, BaHfS3, EuZrS3, EuHfS3 and SrHfS3. There are two stages in the deposition techniques of this study: In the first stage, the binary compounds are deposited via a solution processing method. In the second stage, the deposited materials are annealed in a chalcogenide atmosphere to form the perovskite structure by using solid-state reactions.
The research also focuses on the optimization of a generalized recipe for a molecular ink to deposit precursors of chalcogenide perovskites with different binaries. The implementation of the precursor sulfurization resulted in either binaries without perovskite formation or distorted perovskite structures, whereas some of these materials are reported in the literature as they are more favorable in the needle-like non-perovskite configuration.
Lastly, there are two categories for the evaluation of the produced materials: The first category is about the determination of the physical properties of the deposited layer, e.g., crystal structure, secondary phase formation, impurities, etc. For the second category, optoelectronic properties are measured and compared to an ideal absorber layer, e.g., band gap, conductivity, surface photovoltage, etc.
Complex emulsions are dispersions of kinetically stabilized multiphasic emulsion droplets comprised of two or more immiscible liquids that provide a novel material platform for the generation of active and dynamic soft materials. In recent years, the intrinsic reconfigurable morphological behavior of complex emulsions, which can be attributed to the unique force equilibrium between the interfacial tensions acting at the various interfaces, has become of fundamental and applied interest. As such, particularly biphasic Janus droplets have been investigated as structural templates for the generation of anisotropic precision objects, dynamic optical elements or as transducers and signal amplifiers in chemo- and bio-sensing applications. In the present thesis, switchable internal morphological responses of complex droplets triggered by stimuli-induced alterations of the balance of interfacial tensions have been explored as a universal building block for the design of multiresponsive, active, and adaptive liquid colloidal systems. A series of underlying principles and mechanisms that influence the equilibrium of interfacial tensions have been uncovered, which allowed the targeted design of emulsion bodies that can alter their shape, bind and roll on surfaces, or change their geometrical shape in response to chemical stimuli. Consequently, combinations of the unique triggerable behavior of Janus droplets with designer surfactants, such as a stimuli-responsive photosurfactant (AzoTAB) resulted for instance in shape-changing soft colloids that exhibited a jellyfish inspired buoyant motion behavior, holding great promise for the design of biological inspired active material architectures and transformable soft robotics.
In situ observations of spherical Janus emulsion droplets using a customized side-view microscopic imaging setup with accompanying pendant dropt measurements disclosed the sensitivity regime of the unique chemical-morphological coupling inside complex emulsions and enabled the recording of calibration curves for the extraction of critical parameters of surfactant effectiveness. The deduced new "responsive drop" method permitted a convenient and cost-efficient quantification and comparison of the critical micelle concentrations (CMCs) and effectiveness of various cationic, anionic, and nonionic surfactants. Moreover, the method allowed insightful characterization of stimuli-responsive surfactants and monitoring of the impact of inorganic salts on the CMC and surfactant effectiveness of ionic and nonionic surfactants. Droplet functionalization with synthetic crown ether surfactants yielded a synthetically minimal material platform capable of autonomous and reversible adaptation to its chemical environment through different supramolecular host-guest recognition events. Addition of metal or ammonium salts resulted in the uptake of the resulting hydrophobic complexes to the hydrocarbon hemisphere, whereas addition of hydrophilic ammonium compounds such as amino acids or polypeptides resulted in supramolecular assemblies at the hydrocarbon-water interface of the droplets. The multiresponsive material platform enabled interfacial complexation and
thus triggered responses of the droplets to a variety of chemical triggers including metal ions, ammonium compounds, amino acids, antibodies, carbohydrates as well as amino-functionalized solid surfaces.
In the final chapter, the first documented optical logic gates and combinatorial logic circuits based on complex emulsions are presented. More specifically, the unique reconfigurable and multiresponsive properties of complex emulsions were exploited to realize droplet-based logic gates of varying complexity using different stimuli-responsive surfactants in combination with diverse readout methods. In summary, different designs for multiresponsive, active, and adaptive liquid colloidal systems were presented and investigated, enabling the design of novel transformative chemo-intelligent soft material platforms.