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Boyle, T.C.
(2022)
T.C. Boyle, or Thomas Coraghessan Boyle, is probably best known for his 1995 novel Tortilla Curtain , which quickly became a staple of high school and college syllabi. Tortilla Curtain deftly illustrates what Boyle does best: acerbically tracing the irrationality that governs human thought and the resulting contradictory and often unethical behavior (mostly in relation to xenophobia, environmentalism, and the intersections of gender). Despite often casting a critical eye over US American society, Boyle's works are accessible reads with fast-paced and eventful plots. This combination has produced a number of international bestsellers. In fact, Boyle is so popular in Germany that translations of his works have been published before the original versions came out in English. However, his talent for depicting the impotence of reason in the face of base desires, selfishness, group dynamics, and indoctrinated ideologies is also a weakness: at times, Boyle's satire reproduces what it means to criticize, coming close to naturalizing the hedonistic, prejudiced, and emotionally charged behavior of his characters.
Krisen werden nicht nur als Herausforderungen, sondern auch als Chance für Veränderungen, Neuerungen oder Innovationen betrachtet. Die Covid-19-Pandemie hat die Lehre an Deutschlands Universitäten mit einem Schlag in die digitale Welt verbannt. Von dieser Digitalisierung ist eine sozioökonomische Bildung genauso wie jede andere universitäre Bildung betroffen. Was es bedeutet, Lehre ausschließlich in digitaler Form zu gestalten, wird exemplarisch an einer digitalen Blockveranstaltung zur „Nachhaltigen Berufsbildungsforschung“ an der Leuphana Universität Lüneburg skizziert und insbesondere unter dem Aspekt der Bedürfnisorientierung kritisch reflektiert.
Der vorliegende Artikel analysiert die niedersächsische Polizeiaffäre aus einer Perspektive, die sich für das Zusammenspiel von Recht und Organisationen interessiert. Zunächst argumentieren wir, dass Recht in Organisationen nicht aus sich heraus wirkt, es benötigt Akteur:innen, die es durchsetzen. Diese sitzen formal auf bestimmten Relaisstellen, deren Funktion es ist, dem Recht Geltung zu verschaffen. Im vorliegenden Fall, so zeigen wir, versagen diese Relaisstellen. Recht dient am Ende weniger dem Schutz der Betroffenen als vielmehr dem Schutz der Organisation.
Militär
(2022)
Das Militär hat besondere Bedeutung für die Formung des männlichen Körpers vor allem durch Drill und militärisch geprägte Leibesübungen. Dadurch sollen Soldat*innen tauglich dafür gemacht werden, die Verletzungen des eigenen Körpers, Schmerzen, Durst und Hunger zu ertragen. Die gegenwärtige technologisch unterstütze asymmetrische Kriegsführung ist auch darauf ausgerichtet, die Gefahren für den soldatischen Körper zu reduzieren.
Mundart und Umgangssprache
(2022)
ndividuelle Selbstbestimmung ist Kernelement der Menschenwürde und damit ein Höchstwert der Verfassung. Dennoch scheint sich ihr Schutz auf die Abwesenheit des Staates zu beschränken. Tatsächlich ist sie zahlreichen Gefährdungen ausgesetzt. Der Beitrag will darum ihren Schutz auf das gebotene Niveau heben. Art. 1 Abs. 1 GG verpflichtet den Staat nicht nur zur Achtung, sondern auch zum Schutz der Menschenwürde. Will er diesen Auftrag ernstnehmen, muss er sich entsprechend in den Dienst der Selbstbestimmung seiner Bürger stellen. Dazu darf und muss er ihnen bisweilen Grenzen setzen, um ihre Verantwortungsfähigkeit zu fördern.
Administrative reforms refer to conscious decisions about institution building and institutional change that are taken at the end of political processes and can be conceived as the attempt by politico-administrative actors to change the institutional order (polity) within which they make and implement decisions. In this paper we proceed from the assumption that the role of politics, the constellation of political actors and arenas vary according to the scope and objectives of administrative reforms. Depending on whether they refer to changes between organizational units/levels/sectors ('external institutional policy') or to an internal reorganization ('internal institutional policy'), different actor strategies, patterns of conflict and power constellations can be expected. As external administrative reforms are aimed at changing functional and/or territorial jurisdictions and thus always involve external actors, larger resistance, heavier political conflicts and generally more politicization are likely to occur than in the case of internal administrative reforms. Yet, for internal reforms, too, actor coalitions which support or block institutional changes, promotors, leaders, and moderators have revealed to shape processes and outcomes. Against this background, this chapter examines the influence of politics on various types of administrative reforms making a distinction between external and internal institutional policies. We analyse the role of politico-administrative actors, their strategies and influence on the formulation, trajectories and outcomes of administrative reforms. Our major focus will be on reforms in the multi-level system on the one hand and on (Post-) NPM reforms on the other as two major international trends. Drawing on reform experiences in different European countries, the chapter will reveal to what extent actors' interests and influences have triggered and shaped administrative reforms and which difference these have made for the reform outcome.
Warten auf den Tag X
(2022)
Extreme-right terrorism is a threat that is often underestimated by the public at large. As this paper argues, this is partly due to a concept of terrorism utilized by policymakers, intelligence agents, and police investigators that is based on experience of international terrorism perpetrated by leftists or jihadists as opposed to domestic extreme-right violence. This was one reason why investigators failed to identify the crimes committed by the National Socialist Underground (NSU) in Germany (2000–2011) as extreme-right terrorism, for example. While scholarly debate focused on the Red Army Faction and Al Qaeda, terrorist tendencies among those perpetrating racist and extreme-right violence tended to be disregarded. Influential researchers in the field of “extremism” denied that terrorist acts were committed by right-wingers. By mapping the specifics regarding the strategic use of violence, target selection, addressing of different audiences etc., this paper proposes a more accurate definition of extreme-right terrorism. In comparing it to other forms of terrorism, extreme-right terrorism is distinguished by its specific framework of ideologies and practices, with the underlying idea of an essential inequality that is compensated for through the affirmation of violence. It can be differentiated from other forms of extreme-right violence based on its use of strategic, premeditated and planned attacks against targets of a symbolic nature.
§ 83 Sozialstaatlichkeit
(2022)
Language contact and the linguistic coding of evidentiality in varieties of Spanish in Latin America
(2022)
Bimillenari
(2022)
Introduction
(2022)
Agricultural production worldwide has been increasing in the last decades at a very fast pace and with it the waste generation. Livestock activities are one of the largest producers of residues in the agricultural sector and contribute greatly to climate change. The present chapter gives an introduction and an in-depth analysis of the waste management of livestock for the conversion in a circular agriculture and economy based on research and experience in the sector conducted in the last decades. The conversion of animal waste into energy generation is an opportunity for farmers to obtain additional economic benefits, while contributing to the environment by preventing the release of GHGs into the atmosphere. The use of animal waste for energy generation through anaerobic digestion is a progressive technique and is being widely accepted in Europe, where Germany is the leading country in the use of biogas plants for energy production among others in the European Union. Economically speaking, the livestock industry faces the challenge of converting its production into a clean and more profitable production. The goal of this chapter is to analyze the economic benefit as well as the environmental contribution and future challenges of the use of livestock waste in the biorefineries sector from different perspectives, based on an intensive literature review. This review is accompanied by a geospatial analysis component, mapping biogas reactor hotspots and clusters in Germany, by means of methods of spatial statistics as analysis methods as kernel density estimations (KDE) and K-means clustering, based on volunteer geographic data. The applied methods easily can be transferred to other regions and allow a quick macroscopic overview over existing biogas reactors; furthermore, an identification of cluster and hotspots with a high biogas potential, that in a subsequent step can be analyzed in depth in larger scales.
§ 13 Allgemeines Umweltrecht
(2022)
§ 16 Baurecht
(2022)
In diesem Beitrag untersuchen wir den Zusammenhang zwischen staatlicher Regulierung im Umweltschutz und der Umweltperformanz. Ausgehend von drei theoretischen Perspektiven, welche die Beziehung von Staat und Markt beim Umweltschutz unterschiedlich konzeptualisieren, identifizieren wir fünf Pfade, wie staatlicher Eingriff und Umweltperformanz miteinander verknüpft sein könnten. Wir untersuchen dann die empirische Relevanz dieser Pfade mit einer quantitativen Analyse, die 29 umweltpolitische Maßnahmen in für 37 Länder und den Zeitraum von 1970 bis 2010 umfasst. Dabei finden wir zumindest für einige Politikbereiche und einige Länder Hinweise, die auf eine Effektivität nationalstaatlicher Regulierung hinweisen. Zukünftige Forschung kann auf unserem Rahmen aufbauen, um weitere Hypothesen zum Policy-Outcome-Nexus zu generieren und zu testen.
Das Arbeiten im Homeoffice war in der deutschen öffentlichen Verwaltung vor der Covid-19 Pandemie kein verbreitetes Arbeitsmodell. Mit der Pandemie änderte sich die Situation unerwartet und womöglich auch nachhaltig. Vor dem Hintergrund unterschiedlicher Erfahrungen ist die Frage nicht mehr ob, sondern wie zukünftig in der Verwaltung mobil, flexibel und dezentral sowie in virtuellen Teams gearbeitet werden kann und soll. Dieser Beitrag untersucht diese Konzepte genauer, veranschaulicht deren praktische Anwendung und erörtert entsprechende Perspektiven für das zukünftige Arbeiten im öffentlichen Dienst.
This study evaluates the challenges, institutional impacts and responses of German local authorities to the COVID-19 pandemic from a political science point of view. The main research question is how they have contributed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and to what extent the strengths and weaknesses of the German model of municipal autonomy have influenced their policy. It analyses the adaptation strategies of German local authorities and assesses the effectiveness of their actions up to now. Their implementation is then evaluated in five selected issues, e.g. adjustment organization and staff, challenges for local finances, local politics and citizen’s participation. This analysis is reflecting the scientific debate in Germany since the beginning of 2020, based on the available analyses of political science, law, economics, sociology and geography until end of March 2021.
After some seventy years of intensive debates, there is an increasingly strong consensus within the academic and practitioner communities that development is both an objective and a process towards improving the quality of people's lives in various societal dimensions – economic, social, environmental, cultural and political – and about how subjectively satisfied they are with it. Since 2015, the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (UN) reflect such consensus. The sections behind this argument are based on a review of (i) three key theoretical contributions to development and different phases of development thinking; (ii) global and regional governance arrangements and institutions for development cooperation; (iii) upcoming challenges to development policy and practice stemming from a series of new global challenges; and, (iv) development policy as a long and steady, increasingly global and participatory learning process.
Typen von Forschungsdesigns
(2022)
Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungsdesigns umfassen alle wesentlichen Entscheidungen, die im Forschungsprozess getroffen werden müssen. Der Beitrag unterscheidet drei rundlegende Typen von Forschungsdesigns: x-zentriert, y-zentriert und kontrastiv. Das x-zentrierte Design versucht einen theoretisch spezifizierten kausalen Effekt zu identifizieren und dessen Größe möglichst genau und ohne Verzerrungen zu schätzen. Das y-zentrierte Design versucht mehrere komplementäre Theorien über kausale Effekte so zu kombinieren, dass bestimmte Phänomene möglichst gut erklärt werden. Das kontrastive Design vergleicht die Erklärungskraft von zwei oder mehr konkurrierenden Theorien. Die Unterscheidung der drei Typen ist für qualitative Fallstudien ebenso relevant wie für Experimente oder statistische Studien mit Beobachtungsdaten. Der Beitrag grenzt die drei Typen voneinander ab, erklärt ihre jeweiligen Annahmen und diskutiert ihre Vor- und Nachteile sowie die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen ihrer Kombination. Daneben diskutiert er den Unterschied zwischen Modellen und Theorien sowie die Bedeutung des Sparsamkeitsprinzips bei der Entwicklung und Bewertung wissenschaftlicher Theorien und Erklärungen.
Grammatik
(2022)
Sprachstrukturen verstehen
(2022)
Process models are the basic ingredient for many attempts to improve business processes. The graphical depiction of otherwise not observable behavior in an enterprise is one of the most important techniques in the digital society. They help to enable decision making in the design of processes and workflows. Nevertheless it is not easy to correctly model business processes. Some approaches try to detect errors by an automated analysis of the process model. This contribution focuses on the creation of the first model from scratch. Which errors occur most frequently and how can these be avoided?
Manufacturing companies still have relatively few points of contact with the circular economy. Especially, extending life time of whole products or parts via remanufacturing is an promising approach to reduce waste. However, necessary cost-efficient assessment of the condition of the individual parts is challenging and assessment procedures are technically complex (e.g., scanning and testing procedures). Furthermore, these assessment procedures are usually only available after the disassembly process has been completed. This is where conceptualization, data acquisition and simulation of remanufacturing processes can help. One major constraining aspect of remanufacturing is reducing logistic efforts, since these also have negative external effects on the environment. Thus regionalization is an additional but in the end consequential challenge for remanufacturing. This article aims to fill a gap by providing an regional remanufacturing approach, in particular the design of local remanufacturing chains. Thereby, further focus lies on modeling and simulating alternative courses of action, including feasibility study and eco-nomic assessment.
Expanding modeling notations
(2022)
Creativity is a common aspect of business processes and thus needs a proper representation through process modeling notations. However, creative processes constitute highly flexible process elements, as new and unforeseeable outcome is developed. This presents a challenge for modeling languages. Current methods representing creative-intensive work are rather less able to capture creative specifics which are relevant to successfully run and manage these processes. We outline the concept of creative-intensive processes and present an example from a game design process in order to derive critical process aspects relevant for its modeling. Six aspects are detected, with first and foremost: process flexibility, as well as temporal uncertainty, experience, types of creative problems, phases of the creative process and individual criteria. By first analyzing what aspects of creative work modeling notations already cover, we further discuss which modeling extensions need to be developed to better represent creativity within business processes. We argue that a proper representation of creative work would not just improve the management of those processes, but can further enable process actors to more efficiently run these creative processes and adjust them to better fit to the creative needs.
La conciencia lingüística y la realidad de la lengua española en el cambio del siglo XVIII al XIX
(2022)
§ 60 Arbeitsstrafrecht
(2022)
Although mothers and fathers in almost all rich democracies are entitled to some form of paid parenting leave, fathers in particular do not take all the leave available to them. As employers play an important role in the implementation of parenting leave policies, this chapter investigates which workplace characteristics influence mothers' and fathers' uptake of their statutory leave entitlements. In Part 1, we estimate the size of the gap between statutory leave entitlement and leave uptake across genders and countries by combining data from the OECD and the European Labor Force Survey. In Parts 2 and 3, we review the literature on structural, cultural, and normative explanations for the gap in parenting leave uptake. We conclude the chapter with suggestions for further research, including the need for reliable data on the size of the implementation gap and research on non-European countries.
Artikel 120 Rechnungsprüfung
(2022)
In his 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, Marx famously claims that the human being is or has a ‘Gattungswesen.’ This is often understood to mean that the human being is a ‘species-being’ and is determined by a given ‘species-essence.’ In this chapter, I argue that this reading is mistaken. What Marx calls Gattungswesen is precisely not a ‘species-being,’ but a being that, in a very specific sense, transcends the limits of its own given species. This different understanding of the genus- character of the human being opens up a new perspective on the naturalism of the early Marx. He is not informed by a problematic speciesist and essentialist naturalism, as is often assumed, but by a different form of naturalism which I propose to call ‘dialectical naturalism.’ The chapter starts (I) by developing Hegel’s account of genus which provides us with a useful background for (II) understanding Marx’s original notion of a genus-being and its practical, social, developmental character. In the last section, I show that (III) the actualization of our genus-being thus depends on the production of a specific type of ‘second nature’ that is at the heart of Marx’s dialectical naturalism.
Ein Recht gegen das Recht
(2022)
Tanakh, Mishnah and Talmud
(2022)
Der Verleger, Kaufhausunternehmer und Mäzen Salman Schocken (1877– 1959)neigte nicht zu übertriebener Bescheidenheit. Als er 1945 in New York seinen amerikanischen Verlag ins Leben rief, kündigte er ihn mit folgenden Worten an:
Schocken ignorierte damit die Arbeit der zahlreichen bestehenden amerikanisch-jüdischen Verlagshäuser, da diese seiner Meinung nach nicht die Aufgabe erfüllten, die ihm vorschwebte: die Rückführung traditionsferner und damit in ihrer Identität unsicherer Juden durch Auseinandersetzung mit ihrem kulturellen Erbe. Dieses Ziel hatte bereits das Programm des Berliner Schocken Verlags (1931– 1938) bestimmt, der die vom Gründer genannten „repräsentative[n] Kostproben des Judentums“ veröffentlicht und damit zur „jüdischen Kulturrenaissance“ der 1930er Jahre beigetragen hatte.² Auch nach seiner Emigration nach Palästina 1934 blieb Schocken einer deutsch-jüdischen Wissenskultur zeitlebens verhaftet. Mit seiner verlegerischen Arbeit in den USA wollte Schocken das Programm seines Berliner Verlags für das amerikanische Nachkriegsjudentum neu auflegen, da sich dieses – seiner Meinung nach – in einer ähnlichen geistigen Situation befand wie das deutsche Judentum der Weimarer Republik. Entsprechend verkündete er 1945 in einer Rede in Jerusalem: „Sie wissen, dass ich jetzt daran arbeite, den Schockenverlag in Amerika zu machen. Das ist eine Imitation des deutschen Verlages. [...] Entfernungen existieren nicht mehr und Einfluss von hier nach dort und dort nach hier ist nicht mehr zu übersehen.“³ In diesen Aussagen klingen bereits verschiedene Schlüsselthemen der Rolle von Schocken Books New York an, dessen Geschichte bisher nur ansatzweise erforscht ist: Der Bezug auf Schockens Erfahrungen in Deutschland und das davon geprägte kulturpolitische Programm, das Kontinuitäten zwischen zwei räumlich und zeitlich fundamental getrennten jüdischen Gemeinschaften postulierte und auf einen transnationalen Kanon jüdischen Wissens zielte. Schocken wirkte mit seinen Verlagen, die er in Deutschland, Palästina/Israel und den USA gründete, nicht nur an drei Schlüsselorten der jüdischen Moderne. Sein Verlagsprogramm stand zudem im Kontext eines Schlüsselprozesses jüdischer Modernisierung: der Transformation traditionell-religiösen Wissens in posttraditionell-kulturelle Formen. Dieser Beitrag stellt anhand von Quellen aus dem Verlagsarchiv, der Nachlässe von Schockens Lektoren in den USA und der Rezeption von Schocken Books in den USA den Verlagsgründer Salman Schocken und die beiden Verlage in Berlin und New York vor. Im Zentrum der Analyse stehen die transnationale Verflechtung der Verlagshäuser und die Frage nach dem in den Publikationsprogrammen angestrebten transnationalen Kanon jüdischen Wissens in der Moderne.
Does personality matter? Is an individual who is open to experience more or less likely to become an entrepreneur? Is it better to score low or high in agreeableness for surviving as an entrepreneur? To the extent that personality captures one part of entrepreneurial abilities, which are usually unobservable, the analysis of traits and personality characteristics helps better understanding such abilities. This chapter reviews research on the relationship between personality and entrepreneurship since 2000 and shows that possessing certain personality characteristics will make it more likely that an individual will start an own business and hire staff. More specifically, with respect to the entry decision, research finds that nearly all so-called Big Five factors as well as several specific personality characteristics influence the entry probability into entrepreneurship. Further, entrepreneurs are more likely to hire, the higher they score in risk tolerance, trust, openness to experience, and conscientiousness. However, different factors such as low scores in agreeableness, the only Big Factor that does not affect entrepreneurial entry, influence entrepreneurial survival. And for some of characteristics that influence entrepreneurial entry, like high scores in the factor openness for experience or in risk tolerance, “revolving door effects” are found, explaining why some entrepreneurs subsequently exit again the market.
Gen 32,23-32
(2022)
The following article deals with the question under which conditions a patientdecree is possible in German law. A patient decree can, within certain limits, define the will of the patient at the stage of legal capacity to determine whatshould happen in certain situations when the patient is later under care and acaregiver there-fore takes over his or her representation in certain decisions.Thisapplies in particular to the termination of life-sustaining measures in case ofillness.
Wettbewerbsrecht
(2022)
Reputation and influence
(2022)
International public administrations (IPAs) are collective bodies within international organizations (IOs) made up of international civil servants that support the intergovernmental bodies and member states. Over the last decade, research on these bodies has “gained substantial momentum”. Comparative assessments of IPAs reputation among stakeholders are rare. The literature on the sociological legitimacy of IOs is most advanced in this respect. A comparative agenda on IPAs reputation for expertise or neutrality is still in its infancy. Research has shown that different stakeholders view the same IPA quite differently. Reputation is a crucial concept in political science and IR research and has been widely used to predict states’ future behavior, notably regarding cooperation and conflict. IPAs seem to vary substantially in their reputation for expertise among critical interlocutors. In financial policy, several prominent IPAs are seen as experts, including the European Central Bank and the IMF.
§ 62 Medienstrafrecht
(2022)
Art. 21 AEUV [Freizügigkeit]
(2022)
Einführung
(2022)
'Tools' in public management
(2022)
Tools are methods or procedures, and thus operational patterns of action, applied in public administrations to solve standard problems. It is also possible to consider them as structured communication according to professional standards aiming at complexity reduction. Regularly, tools in management stem on a deductive-synoptic rationale offering a seemingly ‘objective’ decision basis. They have a strong formative influence on the organization, regularly also beyond the intended effects. The prominence of tools is sometimes confused with management as such, e.g. introducing tools is mistaken as equivalent to managing for a particular purpose. However, tools have to be closely and carefully managed regarding the objectives and purposes they should serve.
Over the last few decades, a network of misogynist blogs, websites, wikis, and forums has developed, where users share their bigoted, sexist, and toxic views of society in general and masculinity and femininity in particular. This chapter outlines conceptual framework of hegemonic and hybrid masculinity. It provides a brief overview of the historical development of the manosphere and its various configurations and present our analysis of the masculinities performed by the five groups of the manosphere. The concept of hegemonic masculinity was articulated by Connell and colleagues in the 1980s as “the pattern of practice that allowed men’s dominance over women to continue.” Prior to the advent of the manosphere, an online iteration of male supremacist mobilizations, both Men’s Rights Activists and Pick-up artists developed as offline movements in the 1970s. MRAs perceive their respective societies as inherently stacked against men. This chapter analyses the masculinities of the manosphere and how they “repudiat[e] and reif[y]” hegemonic masculinity and male supremacism.
Kommunalsteuern, Realsteuern
(2022)
Das Verhältnis von Gemeinwohl und Gleichheit ist kein spannungsfreies. Soziale Gleichheit ist ein Grundwert liberal-demokratischer Gemeinwesen. Um diese Gleichheit zu bewahren, entwickelten sich im 20. Jahrhundert Konzeptionen von Gemeinwohl, die versuchten, das Gemeinwohl eher prozedural und pluralistisch zu verstehen. Eine zu spezifische, vorher festgelegte Definition des Gemeinwohls sei letzten Endes undemokratisch und ideologisch und somit der sozialen Gleichheit abträglich. In den letzten Jahren haben sich unter dem Oberbegriff des sozialen Egalitarismus jedoch auch die Vorstellungen der sozialen Gleichheit verändert, hin zu einem substanzielleren Verständnis, was die Frage aufwirft, ob prozedurale Gemeinwohlverständnisse ihrer Rolle als Wächter der Gleichheit immer noch gerecht werden können.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) offers flexible and decarbonised power generation and is one of the few switchable renewable technologies that can generate renewable power on demand. Today (2018), CSP only contributes 5 TWh to European electricity generation but has the potential to become an important generation asset for decarbonising the electricity sector within Europe as well as globally. This chapter examines how factors and key political decisions lead to different futures and the associated CSP use in Europe in the years up to 2050. In a second step, we characterise the scenarios with the associated system costs and the costs of the support policy. We show that the role of CSP in Europe depends crucially on political decisions and the success or failure of policies outside of renewable energies. In particular, the introduction of CSP depends on the general ambitions for decarbonisation, the level of cross-border trade in electricity from renewable sources and is made possible by the existence of a strong grid connection between the southern and northern European Member States and by future growth in electricity demand. The presence of other baseload technologies, particularly nuclear energy in France, diminishes the role and need for CSP. Assuming a favourable technological development, we find a strong role for CSP in Europe in all modelled scenarios: Contribution of 100 TWh to 300 TWh of electricity to a future European electricity system. The current European CSP fleet would have to be increased by a factor of 20 to 60 over the next 30 years. To achieve this, stable financial support for CSP would be required. Depending on framework conditions and assumptions, the amount of support ranges at the EU level from € 0.4 to 2 billion per year, which represents only a small proportion of the total support requirement for the energy system transformation. Cooperation between the Member States could further help reduce these costs.