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In this paper, we present the new frequency spectrum recurrence analysis technique by means of electro-encephalon signals (EES) analyses. The technique is suitable for time series analysis with noise and disturbances. EES were collected, and alpha waves of the occipital region were analysed by comparing the signals from participants in two states, eyes open and eyes closed. Firstly, EES were characterized and analysed by means of techniques already known to compare with the results of the innovative technique that we present here. We verified that, standard recurrence quantification analysis by means of EES time series cannot statistically distinguish the two states. However, the new frequency spectrum recurrence quantification exhibit quantitatively whether the participants have their eyes open or closed. In sequence, new quantifiers are created for analysing the recurrence concentration on frequency bands. These analyses show that EES with similar frequency spectrum have different recurrence levels revealing different behaviours of the nervous system. The technique can be used to deepen the study on depression, stress, concentration level and other neurological issues and also can be used in any complex system.
The magnetic equator in the Brazilian region has moved over 1,100 km northward since 1957, passing the geomagnetic observatory Tatuoca (TTB), in northern Brazil, around 2013. We recovered and processed TTB hourly mean values of the geomagnetic field horizontal (H) component from 1957 until 2019, allowing the investigation of long-term changes in the daily variation due to the influence of secular variation, solar activity, season, and lunar phase. The H day-to-day variability and the occurrence of the counter electrojet at TTB were also investigated. Until the 1990s, ionospheric solar quiet currents dominated the quiet-time daily variation at TTB. After 2000, the magnitude of the daily variation became appreciably greater due to the equatorial electrojet (EEJ) contribution. The H seasonal and day-to-day variability increased as the magnetic equator approached, but their amplitudes normalized to the average daily variation remained at similar levels. Meanwhile, the amplitude of the lunar variation, normalized in the same way, increased from 5% to 12%. Within the EEJ region, the occurrence rate of the morning counter electrojet (MCEJ) increased with proximity to the magnetic equator, while the afternoon counter electrojet (ACEJ) did not. EEJ currents derived from CHAMP and Swarm satellite data revealed that the MCEJ rate varies with magnetic latitude within the EEJ region while the ACEJ rate is largely constant. Simulations with the Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Electrodynamics General Circulation Model based on different geomagnetic main field configurations suggest that long-term changes in the geomagnetic daily variation at TTB can be attributed to the main field secular variation.
The southern Central Andes (SCA) (between 27 degrees S and 40 degrees S) is bordered to the west by the convergent margin between the continental South American Plate and the oceanic Nazca Plate. The subduction angle along this margin is variable, as is the deformation of the upper plate. Between 33 degrees S and 35 degrees S, the subduction angle of the Nazca plate increases from sub-horizontal (< 5 degrees) in the north to relatively steep (similar to 30 degrees) in the south. The SCA contain inherited lithological and structural heterogeneities within the crust that have been reactivated and overprinted since the onset of subduction and associated Cenozoic deformation within the Andean orogen. The distribution of the deformation within the SCA has often been attributed to the variations in the subduction angle and the reactivation of these inherited heterogeneities. However, the possible influence that the thickness and composition of the continental crust have had on both short-term and long-term deformation of the SCA is yet to be thoroughly investigated. For our investigations, we have derived density distributions and thicknesses for various layers that make up the lithosphere and evaluated their relationships with tectonic events that occurred over the history of the Andean orogeny and, in particular, investigated the short- and long-term nature of the present-day deformation processes. We established a 3D model of lithosphere beneath the orogen and its foreland (29 degrees S-39 degrees S) that is consistent with currently available geological and geophysical data, including the gravity data. The modelled crustal configuration and density distribution reveal spatial relationships with different tectonic domains: the crystalline crust in the orogen (the magmatic arc and the main orogenic wedge) is thicker (similar to 55 km) and less dense (similar to 2900 kg/m(3)) than in the forearc (similar to 35 km, similar to 2975 kg/m(3)) and foreland (similar to 30 km, similar to 3000 kg/m(3)). Crustal thickening in the orogen probably occurred as a result of stacking of low-density domains, while density and thickness variations beneath the forearc and foreland most likely reflect differences in the tectonic evolution of each area following crustal accretion. No clear spatial relationship exists between the density distribution within the lithosphere and previously proposed boundaries of crustal terranes accreted during the early Paleozoic. Areas with ongoing deformation show a spatial correlation with those areas that have the highest topographic gradients and where there are abrupt changes in the average crustal-density contrast. This suggests that the short-term deformation within the interior of the Andean orogen and its foreland is fundamentally influenced by the crustal composition and the relative thickness of different crustal layers. A thicker, denser, and potentially stronger lithosphere beneath the northern part of the SCA foreland is interpreted to have favoured a strong coupling between the Nazca and South American plates, facilitating the development of a sub-horizontal slab.
The Salt Range in Pakistan exposes Precambrian to Pleistocene strata outcropping along the Salt Range Thrust (SRT). To better understand the in-situ Cambrian and Pliocene tectonic evolution of the Pakistan Subhimalaya, we have conducted low-temperature thermochronological analysis using apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He and fission track dating. We combine cooling ages from different samples located along the thrust front of the SRT into a thermal model that shows two major cooling events associated with rifting and regional erosion in the Late Palaeozoic and SRT activity since the Pliocene. Our results suggest that the SRT maintained a long-term average shortening rate of similar to 5-6 mm/yr and a high exhumation rate above the SRT ramp since similar to 4 Ma.
AM(W)= 5.1 earthquake on January 21st, 2016 marked the beginning of a significant seismic sequence in the southern Alboran Sea, culminating in aM(W)= 6.3 earthquake on January 25th, and continuing with further moderate magnitude earthquakes until March. We use data from 35 seismic broadband stations in Spain, Morocco and Portugal to relocate the seismicity, estimate seismic moment tensors, and isolate regional apparent source time functions for the main earthquake. Relocation and regional moment tensor inversion consistently yield very shallow depths for the majority of events. We obtain 50 moment tensors for the sequence, showing a mixture of strike-slip faulting for the foreshock and the main event and reverse faulting for the major aftershocks. The leading role of reverse focal mechanisms among the aftershocks may be explained by the geometry of the fault network. The mainshock nucleates at a bend along the left-lateral Al-Idrisi fault, introducing local transpression within the transtensional Alboran Basin. The shallow depths of the 2016 Alboran Sea earthquakes may favor slip-partitioning on the involved faults. Apparent source durations for the main event suggest a similar to 21 km long, asymmetric rupture that propagates primarily toward NE into the restraining fault segment, with fast rupture speed of similar to 3.0 km/s. Consistently, the inversion for laterally variable fault displacement situates the main slip in the restraining segment. The partitioning into strike-slip rupture and dip-slip aftershocks confirms a non-optimal orientation of this segment, and suggests that the 2016 event settled a slip deficit from previous ruptures that could not propagate into the stronger restraining segment.
As the Arctic coast erodes, it drains thermokarst lakes, transforming them into lagoons, and, eventually, integrates them into subsea permafrost. Lagoons represent the first stage of a thermokarst lake transition to a marine setting and possibly more saline and colder upper boundary conditions. In this research, borehole data, electrical resistivity surveying, and modeling of heat and salt diffusion were carried out at Polar Fox Lagoon on the Bykovsky Peninsula, Siberia. Polar Fox Lagoon is a seasonally isolated water body connected to Tiksi Bay through a channel, leading to hypersaline waters under the ice cover. The boreholes in the center of the lagoon revealed floating ice and a saline cryotic bed underlain by a saline cryotic talik, a thin ice-bearing permafrost layer, and unfrozen ground. The bathymetry showed that most of the lagoon had bedfast ice in spring. In bedfast ice areas, the electrical resistivity profiles suggested that an unfrozen saline layer was underlain by a thick layer of refrozen talik. The modeling showed that thermokarst lake taliks can refreeze when submerged in saltwater with mean annual bottom water temperatures below or slightly above 0 degrees C. This occurs, because the top-down chemical degradation of newly formed ice-bearing permafrost is slower than the refreezing of the talik. Hence, lagoons may precondition taliks with a layer of ice-bearing permafrost before encroachment by the sea, and this frozen layer may act as a cap on gas migration out of the underlying talik.
Reported magnitudes ranging between 7.8 and 8.7 highlight a confusion about the true size of the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake, the largest earthquake recorded in the northeast Tibetan Plateau. We compiled a global data set of previously unlooked-at historical seismograms and performed modern computational analyses on the digitized seismic records. We found the epicenter to be near Haiyuan town and obtained a moment magnitude of M-W=7.90.2. Following traditional approaches, we obtained m(B)=7.90.3 with data from 21 stations and M-S(20)=8.10.2 with data from three stations. Geomorphologically, we mapped the surface rupture and horizontal offsets on high-resolution Pleiades satellite and drone imagery that covered the entire western and middle sections of the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake rupture and compiled offsets reported on the eastern section from field measurements in the 1980s. Careful discrimination between single-event and cumulative offsets suggests average horizontal slips of 3.01.0m on the western section, 4.51.5m on the middle section, and 3.5 +/- 0.5m on the eastern section, indicating a total moment magnitude of M-W=7.8 +/- 0.1. Thus, the seismological and geomorphological results agree within the uncertainties, a weighted average giving a moment magnitude of M-W=7.9 +/- 0.2 for the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake. It is likely that earthquake magnitudes based on the historical M were systematically overestimated. <br /> Plain Language Summary Earthquakes are the main mechanism by which elastic energy accumulating due to tectonic motion is released. As the earthquake magnitude scale is logarithmic, major earthquakes control the bulk of this energy budget and are often the most destructive, like the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake with similar to 230,000 casualties. However, major earthquakes tend to have recurrence periods of several hundred years, longer than our instrumental records. To obtain knowledge of historic major earthquakes, paleoseismologists measure geomorphic offsets and map surface ruptures left by past events and estimate the shaking intensity from historical writings. However, in the case of the Haiyuan earthquake, which happened in the late historic, early instrumental period, the magnitudes reported from these two communities differed significantly. In order to constrain the magnitude of this earthquake for seismic hazard assessment and to reconcile the differences between published magnitudes, we reestimated its magnitude from both newly compiled and digitized seismological records and modern satellite and drone imagery. The results show that the early seismological magnitudes were overestimated, which may affect historical magnitudes systematically. The 1920 Haiyuan earthquake was of a similar magnitude to the 2001 Kokoxili and 2008 Wenchuan earthquakes that also occurred in and around the Tibetan Plateau, instead of more than half a magnitude larger.
The Brazilian Earth System Model (BESM-OA2.5), while simulating the historical period proposed by the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), detects an increasing trend in the sea surface height (SSH) on the southern hemisphere oceans relative to that of the pre-industrial era. The increasing trend is accentuated in the CMIP5 RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 future scenarios with higher concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This study sheds light on the sources of such trends in these regions. The results suggest an association with the thermal expansion of the oceans in the upper 700 m due to a gradual warming inflicted by those future scenarios. BESM-OA2.5 presents a surface height increase of 0.11 m in the historical period of 1850-2005. Concerning future projections, BESM-OA2.5 projects SSH increases of 0.14 and 0.23 m (relative to the historical 2005 value) for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, respectively, by the end of 2100. These increases are predominantly in a band of latitude within 35-60 degrees S in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The reproducibility of the trend signal detected in the BESM-OA2.5 simulations is confirmed by the results of three other CMIP5 models.
Forecasting and early warning systems are important investments to protect lives, properties, and livelihood. While early warning systems are frequently used to predict the magnitude, location, and timing of potentially damaging events, these systems rarely provide impact estimates, such as the expected amount and distribution of physical damage, human consequences, disruption of services, or financial loss. Complementing early warning systems with impact forecasts has a twofold advantage: It would provide decision makers with richer information to take informed decisions about emergency measures and focus the attention of different disciplines on a common target. This would allow capitalizing on synergies between different disciplines and boosting the development of multihazard early warning systems. This review discusses the state of the art in impact forecasting for a wide range of natural hazards. We outline the added value of impact-based warnings compared to hazard forecasting for the emergency phase, indicate challenges and pitfalls, and synthesize the review results across hazard types most relevant for Europe.
This review provides a synthesis of current knowledge on the morphological and functional traits of testate amoebae, a polyphyletic group of protists commonly used as proxies of past hydrological changes in paleoecological investigations from peatland, lake sediment and soil archives. A trait-based approach to understanding testate amoebae ecology and paleoecology has gained in popularity in recent years, with research showing that morphological characteristics provide complementary information to the commonly used environmental inferences based on testate amoeba (morpho-)species data. We provide a broad overview of testate amoeba morphological and functional traits and trait-environment relationships in the context of ecology, evolution, genetics, biogeography, and paleoecology. As examples we report upon previous ecological and paleoecological studies that used trait-based approaches, and describe key testate amoebae traits that can be used to improve the interpretation of environmental studies. We also highlight knowledge gaps and speculate on potential future directions for the application of trait-based approaches in testate amoeba research.
The origins and development of the arid and highly seasonal steppe-desert biome in Central Asia, the largest of its kind in the world, remain largely unconstrained by existing records. It is unclear how Cenozoic climatic, geological, and biological forces, acting at diverse spatial and temporal scales, shaped Central Asian ecosystems through time. Our synthesis shows that the Central Asian steppe-desert has existed since at least Eocene times but experienced no less than two regime shifts, one at the Eocene-Oligocene Transition and one in the mid-Miocene. These shifts separated three successive "stable states," each characterized by unique floral and faunal structures. Past responses to disturbance in the Asian steppe-desert imply that modern ecosystems are unlikely to recover their present structures and diversity if forced into a new regime. This is of concern for Asian steppes today, which are being modified for human use and lost to desertification at unprecedented rates.
Over the past few decades, azimuthal seismic anisotropy measurements have been widely used proxy to study past and present-day deformation of the lithosphere and to characterize convection in the mantle. Beneath continental regions, distinguishing between shallow and deep sources of anisotropy remains difficult due to poor depth constraints of measurements and a lack of regional-scale geodynamic modeling. Here, we constrain the sources of seismic anisotropy beneath Madagascar where a complex pattern cannot be explained by a single process such as absolute plate motion, global mantle flow, or geology. We test the hypotheses that either Edge-Driven Convection (EDC) or mantle flow derived from mantle wind interactions with lithospheric topography is the dominant source of anisotropy beneath Madagascar. We, therefore, simulate two sets of mantle convection models using regional-scale 3-D computational modeling. We then calculate Lattice Preferred Orientation that develops along pathlines of the mantle flow models and use them to calculate synthetic splitting parameters. Comparison of predicted with observed seismic anisotropy shows a good fit in northern and southern Madagascar for the EDC model, but the mantle wind case only fits well in northern Madagascar. This result suggests the dominant control of the measured anisotropy may be from EDC, but the role of localized fossil anisotropy in narrow shear zones cannot be ruled out in southern Madagascar. Our results suggest that the asthenosphere beneath northern and southern Madagascar is dominated by dislocation creep. Dislocation creep rheology may be dominant in the upper asthenosphere beneath other regions of continental lithosphere.
Sediment archives in the terrestrial and marine realm are regularly analyzed to infer changes in climate, tectonic, or anthropogenic boundary conditions of the past. However, contradictory observations have been made regarding whether short period events are faithfully preserved in stratigraphic archives; for instance, in marine sediments offshore large river systems. On the one hand, short period events are hypothesized to be non-detectable in the signature of terrestrially derived sediments due to buffering during sediment transport along large river systems. On the other hand, several studies have detected signals of short period events in marine records offshore large river systems. We propose that this apparent discrepancy is related to the lack of a differentiation between different types of signals and the lack of distinction between river response times and signal propagation times. In this review, we (1) expand the definition of the term ‘signal’ and group signals in sub-categories related to hydraulic grain size characteristics, (2) clarify the different types of ‘times’ and suggest a precise and consistent terminology for future use, and (3) compile and discuss factors influencing the times of signal transfer along sediment routing systems and how those times vary with hydraulic grain size characteristics. Unraveling different types of signals and distinctive time periods related to signal propagation addresses the discrepancies mentioned above and allows a more comprehensive exploration of event preservation in stratigraphy – a prerequisite for reliable environmental reconstructions from terrestrially derived sedimentary records.
Sediment archives in the terrestrial and marine realm are regularly analyzed to infer changes in climate, tectonic, or anthropogenic boundary conditions of the past. However, contradictory observations have been made regarding whether short period events are faithfully preserved in stratigraphic archives; for instance, in marine sediments offshore large river systems. On the one hand, short period events are hypothesized to be non-detectable in the signature of terrestrially derived sediments due to buffering during sediment transport along large river systems. On the other hand, several studies have detected signals of short period events in marine records offshore large river systems. We propose that this apparent discrepancy is related to the lack of a differentiation between different types of signals and the lack of distinction between river response times and signal propagation times. In this review, we (1) expand the definition of the term ‘signal’ and group signals in sub-categories related to hydraulic grain size characteristics, (2) clarify the different types of ‘times’ and suggest a precise and consistent terminology for future use, and (3) compile and discuss factors influencing the times of signal transfer along sediment routing systems and how those times vary with hydraulic grain size characteristics. Unraveling different types of signals and distinctive time periods related to signal propagation addresses the discrepancies mentioned above and allows a more comprehensive exploration of event preservation in stratigraphy – a prerequisite for reliable environmental reconstructions from terrestrially derived sedimentary records.
Controversy over the plate tectonic affinity and evolution of the Saxon granulites in a two- or multi-plate setting during inter- or intracontinental collision makes the Saxon Granulite Massif a key area for the understanding of the Palaeozoic Variscan orogeny. The massif is a large dome structure in which tectonic slivers of metapelite and metaophiolite units occur along a shear zone separating a diapir-like body of high-Pgranulite below from low-Pmetasedimentary rocks above. Each of the upper structural units records a different metamorphic evolution until its assembly with the exhuming granulite body. New age and petrologic data suggest that the metaophiolites developed from early Cambrian protoliths during high-Pamphibolite facies metamorphism in the mid- to late-Devonian and thermal overprinting by the exhuming hot granulite body in the early Carboniferous. A correlation of new Ar-Ar biotite ages with publishedP-T-tdata for the granulites implies that exhumation and cooling of the granulite body occurred at average rates of similar to 8 mm/year and similar to 80 degrees C/Ma, with a drop in exhumation rate from similar to 20 to similar to 2.5 mm/year and a slight rise in cooling rate between early and late stages of exhumation. A time lag ofc. 2 Ma between cooling through the closure temperatures for argon diffusion in hornblende and biotite indicates a cooling rate of 90 degrees C/Ma when all units had assembled into the massif. A two-plate model of the Variscan orogeny in which the above evolution is related to a short-lived intra-Gondwana subduction zone conflicts with the oceanic affinity of the metaophiolites and the timescale ofc. 50 Ma for the metamorphism. Alternative models focusing on the internal Variscan belt assume distinctly different material paths through the lower or upper crust for strikingly similar granulite massifs. An earlier proposed model of bilateral subduction below the internal Variscan belt may solve this problem.
Graphite forms the endpoint for organic carbon metamorphism; it is extremely resilient to physical, biological and chemical degradation. Carbonaceous materials (CM) contained within sediments, collected across Taiwan and from the Gaoping submarine canyon, were analyzed using Raman spectroscopy to determine the crystallinity. This allowed the erosional and orogenic movements of petrogenic organic carbon (OCpetro) during the Taiwanese orogeny to be deduced. After automatically fitting and classifying spectra, the distribution of four groups of CM within the sediments provides evidence that many forms of OCpetro have survived at least one previous cycle of erosion, transport and burial before forming rocks in the Western Foothills of the island. There is extensive detrital graphite present in rocks that have not experienced high-grade metamorphism, and graphite flakes are also found in recently deposited marine sediments off Taiwan. The tectonic and geological history of the island shows that these graphite flakes must have survived at least three episodes of recycling. Therefore, transformation to graphite during burial and orogeny is a mechanism for stabilizing organic carbon over geological time, removing biospheric carbon from the active carbon cycle and protecting it from oxidation during future erosion events.
Marked along-strike changes in stratigraphy, mountain belt morphology, basement exhumation, and deformation styles characterize the Andean retroarc; these changes have previously been related to spatiotemporal variations in the subduction angle. We modeled new apatite fission track and apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He data from nine ranges located between 26 degrees S and 28 degrees S. Using new and previously published data, we constructed a Cretaceous to Pliocene paleogeographic model that delineates a four-stage tectonic evolution: extensional tectonics during the Cretaceous (120-75 Ma), the formation of a broken foreland basin between 55 and 30 Ma, reheating due to burial beneath sedimentary rocks (18-13 Ma), and deformation, exhumation, and surface uplift during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene (13-3 Ma). Our model highlights how preexisting upper plate structures control the deformation patterns of broken foreland basins. Because retroarc deformation predates flat-slab subduction, we propose that slab anchoring may have been the precursor of Eocene-Oligocene compression in the Andean retroarc. Our model challenges models which consider broken foreland basins and retroarc deformation in the NW Argentinian Andes to be directly related to Miocene flat subduction.
Marked along-strike changes in stratigraphy, mountain belt morphology, basement exhumation, and deformation styles characterize the Andean retroarc; these changes have previously been related to spatiotemporal variations in the subduction angle. We modeled new apatite fission track and apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He data from nine ranges located between 26 degrees S and 28 degrees S. Using new and previously published data, we constructed a Cretaceous to Pliocene paleogeographic model that delineates a four-stage tectonic evolution: extensional tectonics during the Cretaceous (120-75 Ma), the formation of a broken foreland basin between 55 and 30 Ma, reheating due to burial beneath sedimentary rocks (18-13 Ma), and deformation, exhumation, and surface uplift during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene (13-3 Ma). Our model highlights how preexisting upper plate structures control the deformation patterns of broken foreland basins. Because retroarc deformation predates flat-slab subduction, we propose that slab anchoring may have been the precursor of Eocene-Oligocene compression in the Andean retroarc. Our model challenges models which consider broken foreland basins and retroarc deformation in the NW Argentinian Andes to be directly related to Miocene flat subduction.
The intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation (iNHG) and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau have been argued to be among the main drivers of climate change in midlatitude Central Asia during the Pliocene/Pleistocene. While most proxy records that support this hypothesis are from regions outside the Tibetan Plateau (such as from the Chinese Loess Plateau), detailed paleoclimatic information for the plateau itself during that time has yet remained elusive. Here we present a temporally highly resolved (similar to 500 years) sedimentological record from the Qaidam Basin situated on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau that shows pronounced glacial-interglacial climate variability during the interval from 2.7 to 2.1 Ma. Glacial (interglacial) intervals are generally characterized by coarser (finer) grain size, minima (maxima) in organic matter content, and maxima (minima) in carbonate content. Comparison of our results with Earth's orbital parameters and proxy records from the Chinese Loess Plateau suggests that the observed climate fluctuations were mainly driven by changes in the Siberian High/East Asian winter monsoon system as a response to the iNHG. They are further proposed to be enhanced by the topography of the Tibetan Plateau and its impact on the position and intensity of the westerlies.
The intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation (iNHG) and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau have been argued to be among the main drivers of climate change in midlatitude Central Asia during the Pliocene/Pleistocene. While most proxy records that support this hypothesis are from regions outside the Tibetan Plateau (such as from the Chinese Loess Plateau), detailed paleoclimatic information for the plateau itself during that time has yet remained elusive. Here we present a temporally highly resolved (similar to 500 years) sedimentological record from the Qaidam Basin situated on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau that shows pronounced glacial-interglacial climate variability during the interval from 2.7 to 2.1 Ma. Glacial (interglacial) intervals are generally characterized by coarser (finer) grain size, minima (maxima) in organic matter content, and maxima (minima) in carbonate content. Comparison of our results with Earth's orbital parameters and proxy records from the Chinese Loess Plateau suggests that the observed climate fluctuations were mainly driven by changes in the Siberian High/East Asian winter monsoon system as a response to the iNHG. They are further proposed to be enhanced by the topography of the Tibetan Plateau and its impact on the position and intensity of the westerlies.
The Cluster mission has produced a large data set of electron flux measurements in the Earth's magnetosphere since its launch in late 2000. Electron fluxes are measured using Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detector (RAPID)/Imaging Electron Spectrometer (IES) detector as a function of energy, pitch angle, spacecraft position, and time. However, no adiabatic invariants have been calculated for Cluster so far. In this paper we present a step-by-step guide to calculations of adiabatic invariants and conversion of the electron flux to phase space density (PSD) in these coordinates. The electron flux is measured in two RAPID/IES energy channels providing pitch angle distribution at energies 39.2-50.5 and 68.1-94.5 keV in nominal mode since 2004. A fitting method allows to expand the conversion of the differential fluxes to the range from 40 to 150 keV. Best data coverage for phase space density in adiabatic invariant coordinates can be obtained for values of second adiabatic invariant, K, similar to 10(2), and values of the first adiabatic invariant mu in the range approximate to 5-20 MeV/G. Furthermore, we describe the production of a new data product "LSTAR," equivalent to the third adiabatic invariant, available through the Cluster Science Archive for years 2001-2018 with 1-min resolution. The produced data set adds to the availability of observations in Earth's radiation belts region and can be used for long-term statistical purposes.
The Cluster mission has produced a large data set of electron flux measurements in the Earth's magnetosphere since its launch in late 2000. Electron fluxes are measured using Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detector (RAPID)/Imaging Electron Spectrometer (IES) detector as a function of energy, pitch angle, spacecraft position, and time. However, no adiabatic invariants have been calculated for Cluster so far. In this paper we present a step-by-step guide to calculations of adiabatic invariants and conversion of the electron flux to phase space density (PSD) in these coordinates. The electron flux is measured in two RAPID/IES energy channels providing pitch angle distribution at energies 39.2-50.5 and 68.1-94.5 keV in nominal mode since 2004. A fitting method allows to expand the conversion of the differential fluxes to the range from 40 to 150 keV. Best data coverage for phase space density in adiabatic invariant coordinates can be obtained for values of second adiabatic invariant, K, similar to 10(2), and values of the first adiabatic invariant mu in the range approximate to 5-20 MeV/G. Furthermore, we describe the production of a new data product "LSTAR," equivalent to the third adiabatic invariant, available through the Cluster Science Archive for years 2001-2018 with 1-min resolution. The produced data set adds to the availability of observations in Earth's radiation belts region and can be used for long-term statistical purposes.
Issue Despite their rather similar climatic conditions, eastern Eurasia and northern North America are largely covered by different plant functional types (deciduous or evergreen boreal forest) composed of larch or pine, spruce and fir, respectively. I propose that these deciduous and evergreen boreal forests represent alternative quasi-stable states, triggered by their different northern tree refugia that reflect the different environmental conditions experienced during the Last Glacial. Evidence This view is supported by palaeoecological and environmental evidence. Once established, Asian larch forests are likely to have stabilized through a complex vegetation-fire-permafrost soil-climate feedback system. Conclusion With respect to future forest developments, this implies that Asian larch forests are likely to be governed by long-term trajectories and are therefore largely resistant to natural climate variability on time-scales shorter than millennia. The effects of regional human impact and anthropogenic global warming might, however, cause certain stability thresholds to be crossed, meaning that irreversible transitions occur and resulting in marked consequences for ecosystem services on these human-relevant time-scales.
Millennial-scale palaeoclimate variability has been documented in various terrestrial and marine palaeoclimate proxy records throughout the Northern Hemisphere for the last glacial cycle. Its clear expression and rapid shifts between different states of climate (Greenland Interstadials and Stadials) represents a correlation tool beyond the resolution of e.g. luminescence dating, especially relevant for terrestrial deposits. Usually, comparison of terrestrial proxy datasets and the Greenland ice cores indicates a complex expression of millennial-scale climate variability as recorded in terrestrial geoarchives including loess. Loess is the most widespread terrestrial geoarchive of the Quaternary and especially widespread over Eurasia. However, loess often records a smoothed representation of millennial-scale variability without all fidelity when compared to the Greenland data, this being a relevant limiting feature in integrating loess with other palaeoclimate records. To better understand the loess proxy-response to millennial-scale climate variability, we simulate a proxy signal smoothing by natural processes through application of low-pass filters of delta O-18 data from Greenland, a high-resolution palaeoclimate reference record, alongside speleothem isotope records from the Black Sea-Mediterranean region. We show that low-pass filters represent rather simple models for better constraining the expression of millennial-scale climate variability in low sedimentation environments, and in sediments where proxy-response signals are most likely affected by natural smoothing (by e.g. bioturbation). Interestingly, smoothed datasets from Greenland and the Black Sea-Mediterranean region are most similar in the last similar to 15 ka and between similar to 50-30 ka. Between similar to 30-15 ka, roughly corresponding to the Last Glacial Maximum and the deglaciation, the records show dissimilarities, challenging the construction of robust correlative time-scales in this age range. From our analysis it becomes apparent that patterns of palaeoclimate signals in loess-palaeosol sequences often might be better explained by smoothed Greenland reference data than the original high-resolution Greenland dataset, or other reference data. This opens the possibility to better assess the temporal resolution and palaeoclimate potential of loess-palaeosol sequences in recording supra-regional climate patterns, as well as to securely integrate loess with other chronologically better-resolved palaeoclimate records.
Millennial-scale palaeoclimate variability has been documented in various terrestrial and marine palaeoclimate proxy records throughout the Northern Hemisphere for the last glacial cycle. Its clear expression and rapid shifts between different states of climate (Greenland Interstadials and Stadials) represents a correlation tool beyond the resolution of e.g. luminescence dating, especially relevant for terrestrial deposits. Usually, comparison of terrestrial proxy datasets and the Greenland ice cores indicates a complex expression of millennial-scale climate variability as recorded in terrestrial geoarchives including loess. Loess is the most widespread terrestrial geoarchive of the Quaternary and especially widespread over Eurasia. However, loess often records a smoothed representation of millennial-scale variability without all fidelity when compared to the Greenland data, this being a relevant limiting feature in integrating loess with other palaeoclimate records. To better understand the loess proxy-response to millennial-scale climate variability, we simulate a proxy signal smoothing by natural processes through application of low-pass filters of delta O-18 data from Greenland, a high-resolution palaeoclimate reference record, alongside speleothem isotope records from the Black Sea-Mediterranean region. We show that low-pass filters represent rather simple models for better constraining the expression of millennial-scale climate variability in low sedimentation environments, and in sediments where proxy-response signals are most likely affected by natural smoothing (by e.g. bioturbation). Interestingly, smoothed datasets from Greenland and the Black Sea-Mediterranean region are most similar in the last similar to 15 ka and between similar to 50-30 ka. Between similar to 30-15 ka, roughly corresponding to the Last Glacial Maximum and the deglaciation, the records show dissimilarities, challenging the construction of robust correlative time-scales in this age range. From our analysis it becomes apparent that patterns of palaeoclimate signals in loess-palaeosol sequences often might be better explained by smoothed Greenland reference data than the original high-resolution Greenland dataset, or other reference data. This opens the possibility to better assess the temporal resolution and palaeoclimate potential of loess-palaeosol sequences in recording supra-regional climate patterns, as well as to securely integrate loess with other chronologically better-resolved palaeoclimate records.
Observations of rift and rifted margin architecture suggest that significant spatial and temporal structural heterogeneity develops during the multiphase evolution of continental rifting. Inheritance is often invoked to explain this heterogeneity, such as preexisting anisotropies in rock composition, rheology, and deformation. Here, we use high-resolution 3-D thermal-mechanical numerical models of continental extension to demonstrate that rift-parallel heterogeneity may develop solely through fault network evolution during the transition from distributed to localized deformation. In our models, the initial phase of distributed normal faulting is seeded through randomized initial strength perturbations in an otherwise laterally homogeneous lithosphere extending at a constant rate. Continued extension localizes deformation onto lithosphere-scale faults, which are laterally offset by tens of km and discontinuous along-strike. These results demonstrate that rift- and margin-parallel heterogeneity of large-scale fault patterns may in-part be a natural byproduct of fault network coalescence.
Observations of rift and rifted margin architecture suggest that significant spatial and temporal structural heterogeneity develops during the multiphase evolution of continental rifting. Inheritance is often invoked to explain this heterogeneity, such as preexisting anisotropies in rock composition, rheology, and deformation. Here, we use high-resolution 3-D thermal-mechanical numerical models of continental extension to demonstrate that rift-parallel heterogeneity may develop solely through fault network evolution during the transition from distributed to localized deformation. In our models, the initial phase of distributed normal faulting is seeded through randomized initial strength perturbations in an otherwise laterally homogeneous lithosphere extending at a constant rate. Continued extension localizes deformation onto lithosphere-scale faults, which are laterally offset by tens of km and discontinuous along-strike. These results demonstrate that rift- and margin-parallel heterogeneity of large-scale fault patterns may in-part be a natural byproduct of fault network coalescence.
Temporal variation of natural light sources such as airglow limits the ability of night light sensors to detect changes in small sources of artificial light (such as villages). This study presents a method for correcting for this effect globally, using the satellite radiance detected from regions without artificial light emissions. We developed a routine to define an approximate grid of locations worldwide that do not have regular light emission. We apply this method with a 5 degree equally spaced global grid (total of 2016 individual locations), using data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Day-Night Band (DNB). This code could easily be adapted for other future global sensors. The correction reduces the standard deviation of data in the Earth Observation Group monthly DNB composites by almost a factor of two. The code and datasets presented here are available under an open license by GFZ Data Services, and are implemented in the Radiance Light Trends web application.
Temporal variation of natural light sources such as airglow limits the ability of night light sensors to detect changes in small sources of artificial light (such as villages). This study presents a method for correcting for this effect globally, using the satellite radiance detected from regions without artificial light emissions. We developed a routine to define an approximate grid of locations worldwide that do not have regular light emission. We apply this method with a 5 degree equally spaced global grid (total of 2016 individual locations), using data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Day-Night Band (DNB). This code could easily be adapted for other future global sensors. The correction reduces the standard deviation of data in the Earth Observation Group monthly DNB composites by almost a factor of two. The code and datasets presented here are available under an open license by GFZ Data Services, and are implemented in the Radiance Light Trends web application.
Initiation of subduction following the impingement of a hot buoyant mantle plume is one of the few scenarios that allow breaking the lithosphere and recycling a stagnant lid without requiring any preexisting weak zones. Here, we investigate factors controlling the number and shape of retreating subducting slabs formed by plume-lithosphere interaction. Using 3-D thermomechanical models we show that the deformation regime, which defines formation of single-slab or multi-slab subduction, depends on several parameters such as age of oceanic lithosphere, thickness of the crust and large-scale lithospheric extension rate. Our model results indicate that on present-day Earth multi-slab plume-induced subduction is initiated only if the oceanic lithosphere is relatively young (<30-40 Myr, but >10 Myr), and the crust has a typical thickness of 8 km. In turn, development of single-slab subduction is facilitated by older lithosphere and pre-imposed extensional stresses. In early Earth, plume-lithosphere interaction could have led to formation of either episodic short-lived circular subduction when the oceanic lithosphere was young or to multi-slab subduction when the lithosphere was old.
The Southern Central Andes (33°-36°S) are an excellent natural laboratory to study orogenic deformation processes, where boundary conditions, such as the geometry of the subducted plate, impose an important control on the evolution of the orogen. On the other hand, the South American plate presents a series of heterogeneities that additionally impart control on the mode of deformation. This thesis aims to test the control of this last factor over the construction of the Cenozoic Andean orogenic system.
From the integration of surface and subsurface information in the southern area (34-36°S), the evolution of Andean deformation over the steeply dipping subduction segment was studied. A structural model was developed evaluating the stress state from the Miocene to the present-day and its influence in the migration of magmatic fluids and hydrocarbons. Based on these data, together with the data generated by other researchers in the northern zone of the study area (33-34°S), geodynamic numerical modeling was performed to test the hypothesis of the decisive role of upper-plate heterogeneities in the Andean evolution. Geodynamic codes (LAPEX-2D and ASPECT) which simulate the behavior of materials with elasto-visco-plastic rheologies under deformation, were used. The model results suggest that upper-plate contractional deformation is significantly controlled by the strength of the lithosphere, which is defined by the composition of the upper and lower crust, and by the proportion of lithospheric mantle, which in turn is determined by previous tectonic events. In addition, the previous regional tectono-magmatic events also defined the composition of the crust and its geometry, which is another factor that controls the localization of deformation. Accordingly, with more felsic lower crustal composition, the deformation follows a pure-shear mode, while more mafic compositions induce a simple-shear deformation mode. On the other hand, it was observed that initial lithospheric thickness may fundamentally control the location of deformation, with zones characterized by thin lithosphere are prone to concentrate it. Finally, it was found that an asymmetric lithosphere-astenosphere boundary resulting from corner flow in the mantle wedge of the eastward-directed subduction zone tends to generate east-vergent detachments.
The chapter illustrates how cities can be understood from a system–theory perspective as complex social systems. It argues that the classical and linear intervention methods are often no (longer) suitable for the complex structure, temporal dynamics and multifaceted processuality of urban development. It offers a systemic and systems theory-inspired method as an alternative approach, which allows for extended possibilities that are more appropriate for dealing with urban development processes. The method was developed on the basis of practical experience and theoretical insights. The approach should demonstrate for local decision-makers potential areas of activity for organising urban changes through co-design.
Theories and concepts
(2020)
Urban Change and Citizenship in Times of Crisis addresses the fact that in the beginning of the twenty-first century the majority of the world’s population is urbanised, a social fact that has turned cities more than ever into focal sites of social change. Multiple economic and political strategies, employed by a variety of individual and collective actors, on a number of scales, constitute cities as contested spaces that hold opportunities as well as restrictions for their inhabitants. While cities and urban spaces have long been of central concern for the social sciences, today, classical sociological questions about the city acquire new meaning: Can cities be spaces of emancipation, or does life in the modern city entail a corrosion of citizenship rights? Is the city the focus of societal transformation processes, or do urban environments lose importance in shaping social reality and economic relationships? Furthermore, new questions urgently need to be asked: What is the impact of different historical phenomena such as neo-liberal restructuring, financial and economic crises, or migration flows, as well as their respective counter-movements, on the structure of contemporary cities and on the citizenship rights of city inhabitants? The three volumes address such crucial questions thereby opening up new spaces of debate on both the city and new developments of urbanism.
The contributions to Theories and Concepts offer new theoretical reflections on the city in a philosophical and historical perspective as well as fresh empirical analyses of social life in urban contexts. Chapters not only critically revisit classical and modern philosophical considerations about the nature of cities but no less discuss normative philosophical reflections of urban life and the role of religion in historical processes of the emergence of cities. Composed around the question whether there can be such a thing as a ‘successful city’, this volume addresses issues of urban political subjectivities by considering the city’s role in historical processes of emancipation, the fight for citizenship rights, and today’s challenges and opportunities with regard to promoting social justice, integration, and diversity. Consequentially, theory-driven empirical analyses offer new insight into ways of solving problems in urban contexts and a genuine approach to analyse the Social Quality in cities.
Anthropogenic activities have led to a global decline in biodiversity, and monitoring studies indicate that both insect communities and wetland ecosystems are particularly affected. However, there is a need for long-term data (over centennial or millennial timescales) to better understand natural community dynamics and the processes that govern the observed trends. Chironomids (Insecta: Diptera: Chironomidae) are often the most abundant insects in lake ecosystems, sensitive to environmental change, and, because their larval exoskeleton head capsules preserve well in lake sediments, they provide a unique record of insect community dynamics through time. Here, we provide the results of a metadata analysis of chironomid diversity across a range of spatial and temporal scales. First, we analyse spatial trends in chironomid diversity using Northern Hemispheric data sets overall consisting of 837 lakes. Our results indicate that in most of our data sets, summer temperature (T-jul) is strongly associated with spatial trends in modern-day chironomid diversity. We observe a strong increase in chironomid alpha diversity with increasing T-jul in regions with present-day T-jul between 2.5 and 14 degrees C. In some areas with T-jul > 14 degrees C, chironomid diversity stabilizes or declines. Second, we demonstrate that the direction and amplitude of change in alpha diversity in a compilation of subfossil chironomid records spanning the last glacial-interglacial transition (similar to 15,000-11,000 years ago) are similar to those observed in our modern data. A compilation of Holocene records shows that during phases when the amplitude of temperature change was small, site-specific factors had a greater influence on the chironomid fauna obscuring the chironomid diversity-temperature relationship. Our results imply expected overall chironomid diversity increases in colder regions such as the Arctic under sustained global warming, but with complex and not necessarily predictable responses for individual sites.
Subsea permafrost is perennially cryotic earth material that lies offshore. Most submarine permafrost is relict terrestrial permafrost beneath the Arctic shelf seas, was inundated after the last glaciation, and has been warming and thawing ever since. It is a reservoir and confining layer for gas hydrates and has the potential to release greenhouse gases and affect global climate change. Furthermore, subsea permafrost thaw destabilizes coastal infrastructure. While numerous studies focus on its distribution and rate of thaw over glacial timescales, these studies have not been brought together and examined in their entirety to assess rates of thaw beneath the Arctic Ocean. In addition, there is still a large gap in our understanding of sub-aquatic permafrost processes on finer spatial and temporal scales. The degradation rate of subsea permafrost is influenced by the initial conditions upon submergence. Terrestrial permafrost that has already undergone warming, partial thawing or loss of ground ice may react differently to inundation by seawater compared to previously undisturbed ice-rich permafrost. Heat conduction models are sufficient to model the thaw of thick subsea permafrost from the bottom, but few studies have included salt diffusion for top-down chemical degradation in shallow waters characterized by mean annual cryotic conditions on the seabed. Simulating salt transport is critical for assessing degradation rates for recently inundated permafrost, which may accelerate in response to warming shelf waters, a lengthening open water season, and faster coastal erosion rates. In the nearshore zone, degradation rates are also controlled by seasonal processes like bedfast ice, brine injection, seasonal freezing under floating ice conditions and warm freshwater discharge from large rivers. The interplay of all these variables is complex and needs further research. To fill this knowledge gap, this thesis investigates sub-aquatic permafrost along the southern coast of the Bykovsky Peninsula in eastern Siberia. Sediment cores and ground temperature profiles were collected at a freshwater thermokarst lake and two thermokarst lagoons in 2017. At this site, the coastline is retreating, and seawater is inundating various types of permafrost: sections of ice-rich Pleistocene permafrost (Yedoma) cliffs at the coastline alternate with lagoons and lower elevation previously thawed and refrozen permafrost basins (Alases). Electrical resistivity surveys with floating electrodes were carried out to map ice-bearing permafrost and taliks (unfrozen zones in the permafrost, usually formed beneath lakes) along the diverse coastline and in the lagoons. Combined with the borehole data, the electrical resistivity results permit estimation of contemporary ice-bearing permafrost characteristics, distribution, and occasionally, thickness. To conceptualize possible geomorphological and marine evolutionary pathways to the formation of the observed layering, numerical models were applied. The developed model incorporates salt diffusion and seasonal dynamics at the seabed, including bedfast ice. Even along coastlines with mean annual non-cryotic boundary conditions like the Bykovsky Peninsula, the modelling results show that salt diffusion minimizes seasonal freezing of the seabed, leading to faster degradation rates compared to models without salt diffusion. Seasonal processes are also important for thermokarst lake to lagoon transitions because lagoons can generate cold hypersaline conditions underneath the ice cover. My research suggests that ice-bearing permafrost can form in a coastal lagoon environment, even under floating ice. Alas basins, however, may degrade more than twice as fast as Yedoma permafrost in the first several decades of inundation. In addition to a lower ice content compared to Yedoma permafrost, Alas basins may be pre-conditioned with salt from adjacent lagoons. Considering the widespread distribution of thermokarst in the Arctic, its integration into geophysical models and offshore surveys is important to quantify and understand subsea permafrost degradation and aggradation. Through numerical modelling, fieldwork, and a circum-Arctic review of subsea permafrost literature, this thesis provides new insights into sub-aquatic permafrost evolution in saline coastal environments.
Sediment Transit Time and Floodplain Storage Dynamics in Alluvial Rivers Revealed by Meteoric 10Be
(2020)
Quantifying the time scales of sediment transport and storage through river systems is fundamental for understanding weathering processes, biogeochemical cycling, and improving watershed management, but measuring sediment transit time is challenging. Here we provide the first systematic test of measuring cosmogenic meteoric Beryllium-10 (10Bem) in the sediment load of a large alluvial river to quantify sediment transit times. We take advantage of a natural experiment in the Rio Bermejo, a lowland alluvial river traversing the east Andean foreland basin in northern Argentina. This river has no tributaries along its trunk channel for nearly 1,300 km downstream from the mountain front. We sampled suspended sediment depth profiles along the channel and measured the concentrations of 10Bem in the chemically extracted grain coatings. We calculated depth-integrated 10Bem concentrations using sediment flux data and found that 10Bem concentrations increase 230% from upstream to downstream, indicating a mean total sediment transit time of 8.4 ± 2.2 kyr. Bulk sediment budget-based estimates of channel belt and fan storage times suggest that the 10Bem tracer records mixing of old and young sediment reservoirs. On a reach scale, 10Bem transit times are shorter where the channel is braided and superelevated above the floodplain, and longer where the channel is incised and meandering, suggesting that transit time is controlled by channel morphodynamics. This is the first systematic application of 10Bem as a sediment transit time tracer and highlights the method's potential for inferring sediment routing and storage dynamics in large river systems.
Sediment Transit Time and Floodplain Storage Dynamics in Alluvial Rivers Revealed by Meteoric 10Be
(2020)
Quantifying the time scales of sediment transport and storage through river systems is fundamental for understanding weathering processes, biogeochemical cycling, and improving watershed management, but measuring sediment transit time is challenging. Here we provide the first systematic test of measuring cosmogenic meteoric Beryllium-10 (10Bem) in the sediment load of a large alluvial river to quantify sediment transit times. We take advantage of a natural experiment in the Rio Bermejo, a lowland alluvial river traversing the east Andean foreland basin in northern Argentina. This river has no tributaries along its trunk channel for nearly 1,300 km downstream from the mountain front. We sampled suspended sediment depth profiles along the channel and measured the concentrations of 10Bem in the chemically extracted grain coatings. We calculated depth-integrated 10Bem concentrations using sediment flux data and found that 10Bem concentrations increase 230% from upstream to downstream, indicating a mean total sediment transit time of 8.4 ± 2.2 kyr. Bulk sediment budget-based estimates of channel belt and fan storage times suggest that the 10Bem tracer records mixing of old and young sediment reservoirs. On a reach scale, 10Bem transit times are shorter where the channel is braided and superelevated above the floodplain, and longer where the channel is incised and meandering, suggesting that transit time is controlled by channel morphodynamics. This is the first systematic application of 10Bem as a sediment transit time tracer and highlights the method's potential for inferring sediment routing and storage dynamics in large river systems.
This thesis investigates how the permafrost microbiota responds to global warming. In detail, the constraints behind methane production in thawing permafrost were linked to methanogenic activity, abundance and composition. Furthermore, this thesis offers new insights into microbial adaptions to the changing environmental conditions during global warming. This was assesed by investigating the potential ecological relevant functions encoded by plasmid DNA within the permafrost microbiota. Permafrost of both interglacial and glacial origin spanning the Holocene to the late Pleistocene, including Eemian, were studied during long-term thaw incubations. Furthermore, several permafrost cores of different stratigraphy, soil type and vegetation cover were used to target the main constraints behind methane production during short-term thaw simulations. Short- and long-term incubations simulating thaw with and without the addition of substrate were combined with activity measurements, amplicon and metagenomic sequencing of permanently frozen and seasonally thawed active layer. Combined, it allowed to address the following questions. i) What constraints methane production when permafrost thaws and how is this linked to methanogenic activity, abundance and composition? ii) How does the methanogenic community composition change during long-term thawing conditions? iii) Which potential ecological relevant functions are encoded by plasmid DNA in active layer soils?
The major outcomes of this thesis are as follows. i) Methane production from permafrost after long-term thaw simulation was found to be constrained mainly by the abundance of methanogens and the archaeal community composition. Deposits formed during periods of warmer temperatures and increased precipitation, (here represented by deposits from the Late Pleistocene of both interstadial and interglacial periods) were found to respond strongest to thawing conditions and to contain an archaeal community dominated by methanogenic archaea (40% and 100% of all detected archaea). Methanogenic population size and carbon density were identified as main predictors for potential methane production in thawing permafrost in short-term incubations when substrate was sufficiently available.
ii) Besides determining the methanogenic activity after long-term thaw, the paleoenvironmental conditions were also found to influence the response of the methanogenic community composition. Substantial shifts within methanogenic community structure and a drop in diversity were observed in deposits formed during warmer periods, but not in deposits from stadials, when colder and drier conditions occurred. Overall, a shift towards a dominance of hydrogenotrophic methanogens was observed in all samples, except for the oldest interglacial deposits from the Eemian, which displayed a potential dominance of acetoclastic methanogens. The Eemian, which is discussed to serve as an analogue to current climate conditions, contained highly active methanogenic communities. However, all potential limitation of methane production after permafrost thaw, it means methanogenic community structure, methanogenic population size, and substrate pool might be overcome after permafrost had thawed on the long-term. iii) Enrichments with soil from the seasonally thawed active layer revealed that its plasmid DNA (‘metaplasmidome’) carries stress-response genes. In particular it encoded antibiotic resistance genes, heavy metal resistance genes, cold shock proteins and genes encoding UV-protection. Those are functions that are directly involved in the adaptation of microbial communities to stresses in polar environments. It was further found that metaplasmidomes from the Siberian active layer originate mainly from Gammaproteobacteria. By applying enrichment cultures followed by plasmid DNA extraction it was possible to obtain a higher average contigs length and significantly higher recovery of plasmid sequences than from extracting plasmid sequences from metagenomes. The approach of analyzing ‘metaplasmidomes’ established in this thesis is therefore suitable for studying the ecological role of plasmids in polar environments in general.
This thesis emphasizes that including microbial community dynamics have the potential to improve permafrost-carbon projections. Microbially mediated methane release from permafrost environments may significantly impact future climate change. This thesis identified drivers of methanogenic composition, abundance and activity in thawing permafrost landscapes. Finally, this thesis underlines the importance to study how the current warming Arctic affects microbial communities in order to gain more insight into microbial response and adaptation strategies.
The East Asian monsoons characterize the modern-day Asian climate, yet their geological history and driving mechanisms remain controversial. The southeasterly summer monsoon provides moisture, whereas the northwesterly winter monsoon sweeps up dust from the arid Asian interior to form the Chinese Loess Plateau. The onset of this loess accumulation, and therefore of the monsoons, was thought to be 8 million years ago (Ma). However, in recent years these loess records have been extended further back in time to the Eocene (56-34 Ma), a period characterized by significant changes in both the regional geography and global climate. Yet the extent to which these reconfigurations drive atmospheric circulation and whether the loess-like deposits are monsoonal remains debated. In this thesis, I study the terrestrial deposits of the Xining Basin previously identified as Eocene loess, to derive the paleoenvironmental evolution of the region and identify the geological processes that have shaped the Asian climate.
I review dust deposits in the geological record and conclude that these are commonly represented by a mix of both windblown and water-laid sediments, in contrast to the pure windblown material known as loess. Yet by using a combination of quartz surface morphologies, provenance characteristics and distinguishing grain-size distributions, windblown dust can be identified and quantified in a variety of settings. This has important implications for tracking aridification and dust-fluxes throughout the geological record.
Past reversals of Earth’s magnetic field are recorded in the deposits of the Xining Basin and I use these together with a dated volcanic ash layer to accurately constrain the age to the Eocene period. A combination of pollen assemblages, low dust abundances and other geochemical data indicates that the early Eocene was relatively humid suggesting an intensified summer monsoon due to the warmer greenhouse climate at this time. A subsequent shift from predominantly freshwater to salt lakes reflects a long-term aridification trend possibly driven by global cooling and the continuous uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. Superimposed on this aridification are wetter intervals reflected in more abundant lake deposits which correlate with highstands of the inland proto-Paratethys Sea. This sea covered the Eurasian continent and thereby provided additional moisture to the winter-time westerlies during the middle to late Eocene.
The long-term aridification culminated in an abrupt shift at 40 Ma reflected by the onset of windblown dust, an increase in steppe-desert pollen, the occurrence of high-latitude orbital cycles and northwesterly winds identified in deflated salt deposits. Together, these indicate the onset of a Siberian high atmospheric pressure system driving the East Asian winter monsoon as well as dust storms and was triggered by a major sea retreat from the Asian interior. These results therefore show that the proto-Paratethys Sea, though less well recognized than the Tibetan Plateau and global climate, has been a major driver in setting up the modern-day climate in Asia.
To find out the future of nowadays reef ecosystem turnover under the environmental stresses such as global warming and ocean acidification, analogue studies from the geologic past are needed. As a critical time of reef ecosystem innovation, the Permian-Triassic transition witnessed the most severe demise of Phanerozoic reef builders, and the establishment of modern style symbiotic relationships within the reef-building organisms. Being the initial stage of this transition, the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction coursed a reef eclipse in the early Late Permian, which lead to a gap of understanding in the post-extinction Wuchiapingian reef ecosystem, shortly before the radiation of Changhsingian reefs. Here, this thesis presents detailed biostratigraphic, sedimentological, and palaeoecological studies of the Wuchiapingian reef recovery following the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction, on the only recorded Wuchiapingian reef setting, outcropping in South China at the Tieqiao section.
Conodont biostratigraphic zonations were revised from the Early Permian Artinskian to the Late Permian Wuchiapingian in the Tieqiao section. Twenty main and seven subordinate conodont zones are determined at Tieqiao section including two conodont zone below and above the Tieqiao reef complex. The age of Tieqiao reef was constrained as early to middle Wuchiapingian.
After constraining the reef age, detailed two-dimensional outcrop mapping combined with lithofacies study were carried out on the Wuchiapingian Tieqiao Section to investigate the reef growth pattern stratigraphically as well as the lateral changes of reef geometry on the outcrop scale. Semi-quantitative studies of the reef-building organisms were used to find out their evolution pattern within the reef recovery. Six reef growth cycles were determined within six transgressive-regressive cycles in the Tieqiao section. The reefs developed within the upper part of each regressive phase and were dominated by different biotas. The timing of initial reef recovery after the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction was updated to the Clarkina leveni conodont zone, which is earlier than previous understanding. Metazoans such as sponges were not the major components of the Wuchiapingian reefs until the 5th and 6th cycles. So, the recovery of metazoan reef ecosystem after the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction was obviously delayed. In addition, although the importance of metazoan reef builders such as sponges did increase following the recovery process, encrusting organisms such as Archaeolithoporella and Tubiphytes, combined with microbial carbonate precipitation, still played significant roles to the reef building process and reef recovery after the mass extinction.
Based on the results from outcrop mapping and sedimentological studies, quantitative composition analysis of the Tieqiao reef complex were applied on selected thin sections to further investigate the functioning of reef building components and the reef evolution after the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction. Data sets of skeletal grains and whole rock components were analyzed. The results show eleven biocommunity clusters/eight rock composition clusters dominated by different skeletal grains/rock components. Sponges, Archaeolithoporella and Tubiphytes were the most ecologically important components within the Wuchiapingian Tieqiao reef, while the clotted micrites and syndepositional cements are the additional important rock components for reef cores. The sponges were important within the whole reef recovery. Tubiphytes were broadly distributed in different environments and played a key-role in the initial reef communities. Archaeolithoporella concentrated in the shallower part of reef cycles (i.e., the upper part of reef core) and was functionally significant for the enlargement of reef volume.
In general, the reef recovery after the Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction has some similarities with the reef recovery following the end-Permian mass extinction. It shows a delayed recovery of metazoan reefs and a stepwise recovery pattern that was controlled by both ecological and environmental factors. The importance of encrusting organisms and microbial carbonates are also similar to most of the other post-extinction reef ecosystems. These findings can be instructive to extend our understanding of the reef ecosystem evolution under environmental perturbation or stresses.
LiCSBAS
(2020)
For the past five years, the 2-satellite Sentinel-1 constellation has provided abundant and useful Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data, which have the potential to reveal global ground surface deformation at high spatial and temporal resolutions. However, for most users, fully exploiting the large amount of associated data is challenging, especially over wide areas. To help address this challenge, we have developed LiCSBAS, an open-source SAR interferometry (InSAR) time series analysis package that integrates with the automated Sentinel-1 InSAR processor (LiCSAR). LiCSBAS utilizes freely available LiCSAR products, and users can save processing time and disk space while obtaining the results of InSAR time series analysis. In the LiCSBAS processing scheme, interferograms with many unwrapping errors are automatically identified by loop closure and removed. Reliable time series and velocities are derived with the aid of masking using several noise indices. The easy implementation of atmospheric corrections to reduce noise is achieved with the Generic Atmospheric Correction Online Service for InSAR (GACOS). Using case studies in southern Tohoku and the Echigo Plain, Japan, we demonstrate that LiCSBAS applied to LiCSAR products can detect both large-scale (>100 km) and localized (~km) relative displacements with an accuracy of <1 cm/epoch and ~2 mm/yr. We detect displacements with different temporal characteristics, including linear, periodic, and episodic, in Niigata, Ojiya, and Sanjo City, respectively. LiCSBAS and LiCSAR products facilitate greater exploitation of globally available and abundant SAR datasets and enhance their applications for scientific research and societal benefit.
Lava domes are severely hazardous, mound-shaped extrusions of highly viscous lava and commonly erupt at many active stratovolcanoes around the world. Due to gradual growth and flank oversteepening, such lava domes regularly experience partial or full collapses, resulting in destructive and far-reaching pyroclastic density currents. They are also associated with cyclic explosive activity as the complex interplay of cooling, degassing, and solidification of dome lavas regularly causes gas pressurizations on the dome or the underlying volcano conduit. Lava dome extrusions can last from days to decades, further highlighting the need for accurate and reliable monitoring data.
This thesis aims to improve our understanding of lava dome processes and to contribute to the monitoring and prediction of hazards posed by these domes. The recent rise and sophistication of photogrammetric techniques allows for the extraction of observational data in unprecedented detail and creates ideal tools for accomplishing this purpose. Here, I study natural lava dome extrusions as well as laboratory-based analogue models of lava dome extrusions and employ photogrammetric monitoring by Structure-from-Motion (SfM) and Particle-Image-Velocimetry (PIV) techniques. I primarily use aerial photography data obtained by helicopter, airplanes, Unoccupied Aircraft Systems (UAS) or ground-based timelapse cameras. Firstly, by combining a long time-series of overflight data at Volcán de Colima, México, with seismic and satellite radar data, I construct a detailed timeline of lava dome and crater evolution. Using numerical model, the impact of the extrusion on dome morphology and loading stress is further evaluated and an impact on the growth direction is identified, bearing important implications for the location of collapse hazards. Secondly, sequential overflight surveys at the Santiaguito lava dome, Guatemala, reveal surface motion data in high detail. I quantify the growth of the lava dome and the movement of a lava flow, showing complex motions that occur on different timescales and I provide insight into rock properties relevant for hazard assessment inferred purely by photogrammetric processing of remote sensing data. Lastly, I recreate artificial lava dome and spine growth using analogue modelling under controlled conditions, providing new insights into lava extrusion processes and structures as well as the conditions in which they form.
These findings demonstrate the capabilities of photogrammetric data analyses to successfully monitor lava dome growth and evolution while highlighting the advantages of complementary modelling methods to explain the observed phenomena. The results presented herein further bear important new insights and implications for the hazards posed by lava domes.
Unlike today’s prevailing terrestrial features, the geologic past of Central Asia witnessed marine environments and conditions as well. A vast, shallow sea, known as proto-Paratethys, extended across Eurasia from the Mediterranean Tethys to the Tarim Basin in western China during Cretaceous to Paleogene times. This sea formed about 160 million years ago (during Jurassic times) when the waters of the Tethys Ocean flooded into Eurasia. It drastically retreated to the west and became isolated as the Paratethys during the Late Eocene-Oligocene (ca. 34 Ma).
Having well-constrained timing and paleogeography for the Cretaceous-Paleogene proto-Paratethys sea incursions in Central Asia is essential to properly understand and distinguish the controlling mechanisms and their link to Asian paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic change. The Cretaceous-Paleogene tectonic evolution of the Pamir and Tibet and their far-field effects play a significant role on the sedimentological and structural evolution of the Central Asian basins and on the evolution of the proto-Paratethys sea fluctuations as well. Comparing the records of the sea incursions to the tectonic and eustatic events has paramount importance to reveal the controlling mechanisms behind the sea incursions. However, due to inaccuracies in the dating of rocks (mostly continental rocks and marine rocks with benthic microfossils providing low-resolution biostratigraphic constraints) and conflicting results, there has been no consensus on the timing of the sea incursions and interpretation of their records has been in question. Here, we present a new chronostratigraphic framework based on biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy as well as a detailed paleoenvironmental analysis for the Cretaceous and Paleogene proto-Paratethys Sea incursions in the Tajik and Tarim basins, in Central Asia. This enables us to identify the major drivers of marine fluctuations and their potential consequences on regional and global climate, particularly Asian aridification and the global carbon cycle perturbations such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). To estimate the paleogeographic evolution of the proto-Paratethys Sea, the refined age constraints and detailed paleoenvironmental interpretations are combined with successive paleogeographic maps. Regional coastlines and depositional environments during the Cretaceous-Paleogene sea advances and retreats were drawn based on the results of this thesis and integrated with existing literature to generate new paleogeographic maps.
Before its final westward retreat in the Eocene, a total of six Cretaceous and Paleogene major sea incursions have been distinguished from the sedimentary records of the Tajik and Tarim basins in Central Asia. All have been studied and documented here.
We identify the presence of marine conditions already in the Early Cretaceous in the western Tajik Basin, followed by the Cenomanian (ca. 100 Ma) and Santonian (ca. 86 Ma) major marine incursions far into the eastern Tajik and Tarim basins separated by a Turonian-Coniacian (ca. 92-86 Ma) regression. Basin-wide tectonic subsidence analyses imply that the Early Cretaceous invasion of the sea into the Tajik Basin is related to increased Pamir tectonism (at ca. 130 – 90 Ma) in a retro-arc basin setting inferred to be linked to collision and subduction. This tectonic event mainly governed the Cenomanian (ca. 100 Ma) sea incursion in conjunction with a coeval global eustatic high resulting in the maximum geographic extent of the sea. The following Turonian-Coniacian (ca. 92-86 Ma) major regression, driven by eustasy, coincides with a sharp slowdown in tectonic subsidence related to a regime change in Pamir tectonism from compression to extension. The Santonian (ca. 86 Ma) major sea incursion was more likely controlled dominantly by eustasy as also evidenced by the coeval fluctuations in the west Siberian Basin. During the early Maastrichtian, the global Late Cretaceous cooling is inferred from the disappearance of mollusk-rich limestones and the dominance of bryozoan-rich and echinoderm-rich limestones in the Tajik Basin documenting the first evidence for the Late Cretaceous cooling event in Central Asia.
Following the last Cretaceous sea incursion, a major regional restriction event, marked by the exceptionally thick (≤ 400 m) shelf evaporites is assigned a Danian-Selandian age (ca. 63-59 Ma). This is followed by the largest recorded proto-Paratethys sea incursion with a transgression estimated as early Thanetian (ca. 59-57 Ma) and a regression within the Ypresian (ca. 53-52 Ma). The transgression of the next incursion is now constrained as early Lutetian (ca. 47-46 Ma), whereas its regression is constrained as late Lutetian (ca. 41 Ma) and is associated with a drastic increase in both tectonic subsidence and basin infilling. The age of the final and least pronounced sea incursion restricted to the westernmost margin of the Tarim Basin is assigned as Bartonian–Priabonian (ca. 39.7-36.7 Ma). We interpret the long-term westward retreat of the proto-Paratethys Sea starting at ca. 41 Ma to be associated with far-field tectonic effects of the Indo-Asia collision and Pamir/Tibetan plateau uplift. Short-term eustatic sea level transgressions are superimposed on this long-term regression and seem coeval with the transgression events in the other northern Peri-Tethyan sedimentary provinces for the 1st and 2nd Paleogene sea incursions. However, the last Paleogene sea incursion is interpreted as related to tectonism. The transgressive and regressive intervals of the proto-Paratethys Sea correlate well with the reported humid and arid phases, respectively in the Qaidam and Xining basins, thus demonstrating the role of the proto-Paratethys Sea as an important moisture source for the Asian interior and its regression as a contributor to Asian aridification.
We lastly study the mechanics, relative contribution and preservation efficiency of ancient epicontinental seas as carbon sinks with new and existing data, using organic rich (sapropel) deposits dated to the PETM from the extensive epicontinental proto-Paratethys and West Siberian seas. We estimate ca. 1390±230 Gt organic C burial, a substantial amount compared to previously estimated global total excess organic C burial (ca. 1700-2900 Gt) is focused in the proto-Paratethys and West Siberian seas alone. We also speculate that enhanced organic carbon burial later over much of the proto-Paratethys (and later Paratethys) basin (during the deposition of the Kuma Formation and Maikop series, repectively) may have majorly contributed to drawdown of atmospheric carbon dioxide before and during the EOT cooling and glaciation of Antarctica. For past periods with smaller epicontinental seas, the effectiveness of this negative carbon cycle feedback was arguably diminished, and the same likely applies to the present-day.
Carbonates play a key role in the chemistry and dynamics of our planet. They are directly connected to the CO2 budget of our atmosphere and have a great impact on the deep carbon cycle. Moreover, recent studies have shown that carbonates are stable along the geothermal gradient down to Earth's lower mantle conditions, changing their crystal structure and related properties. Subducted carbonates may also react with silicates to form new phases. These reactions will redistribute elements, such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), but also trace elements, that are carried by the carbonates. The trace elements of most interest are strontium (Sr) and rare earth elements (REE) which have been found to be important constituents in the composition of the primitive lower mantle and in mineral inclusions found in super-deep diamonds. However, the stability of carbonates in presence of mantle silicates at relevant temperatures is far from being well understood. Related to this, very little is known about distribution processes of trace elements between carbonates and mantle silicates. To shed light on these processes, we studied reactions between Sr- and REE-containing CaCO3 and Mg/Fe-bearing silicates of the system (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 - (Mg,Fe)SiO3 at high pressure and high temperature using synchrotron radiation based μ-X-ray diffraction (μ-XRD) and μ-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) with μm-resolution in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell. X-ray diffraction is used to derive the structural changes of the phase reactions whereas X-ray fluorescence gives information on the chemical changes in the sample. In-situ experiments at high pressure and high temperature were performed at beamline P02.2 at PETRA III (Hamburg, Germany) and at beamline ID27 at ESRF (Grenoble, France). In addition to μ-XRD and μ-XRF, ex-situ measurements were made on the recovered sample material using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and provided further insights into the reaction kinetics of carbonate-silicate reactions.
Our investigations show that CaCO3 is unstable in presence of mantle silicates above 1700 K and a reaction takes place in which magnesite plus CaSiO3-perovskite are formed. In addition, we observed that a high content of iron in the carbonate-silicate system favours dolomite formation during the reaction. The subduction of natural carbonates with significant amounts of Sr leads to a comprehensive investigation of the stability not only of CaCO3 phases in contact with mantle silicates but also of SrCO3 (and of Sr-bearing CaCO3). We found that SrCO3 reacts with (Mg,Fe)SiO3-perovskite to form magnesite and gained evidence for the formation of SrSiO3-perovskite.
To complement our study on the stability of SrCO3 at conditions of the Earth's lower mantle, we performed powder X-ray diffraction and single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments at ambient temperature and up to 49 GPa. We observed a transformation from SrCO3-I into a new high-pressure phase SrCO3-II at around 26 GPa with Pmmn crystal structure and a bulk modulus of 103(10) GPa. This information is essential to fully understand the phase behaviour and stability of carbonates in the Earth's lower mantle and to elucidate the possibility of introducing Sr into mantle silicates by carbonate-silicate reactions.
Simultaneous recording of μ-XRD and μ-XRF in the μm-range over the heated areas provides spatial information not only about phase reactions but also on the elemental redistribution during the reactions. A comparison of the spatial intensity distribution of the XRF signal before and after heating indicates a change in the elemental distribution of Sr and an increase in Sr-concentration was found around the newly formed SrSiO3-perovskite. With the help of additional TEM analyses on the quenched sample material the elemental redistribution was studied at a sub-micrometer scale. Contrary to expectations from combined μ-XRD and μ-XRF measurements, we found that La and Eu were not incorporated into the silicate phases, instead they tend to form either isolated oxide phases (e.g. Eu2O3, La2O3) or hydroxyl-bastnäsite (La(CO3)(OH)). In addition, we observed the transformation from (Mg,Fe)SiO3-perovskite to low-pressure clinoenstatite during pressure release. The monoclinic structure (P21/c) of this phase allows the incorporation of Ca as shown by additional EDX analyses and, to a minor extent, Sr too.
Based on our experiments, we can conclude that a detection of the trace elements in-situ at high pressure and high temperature remains challenging. However, our first findings imply that silicates may incorporate the trace elements provided by the carbonates and indicate that carbonates may have a major effect on the trace element contents of mantle phases.
The transfer of particulate organic carbon from continents to the ocean is an important component of the global carbon cycle. Transfer to and burial of photosynthetically fixed biospheric organic carbon in marine sediments can effectively sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide over geological timescales. The exhumation and erosion of fossil organic carbon contained in sedimentary rocks, i.e. petrogenic carbon, can result in remineralization, releasing carbon to the atmosphere. In contrast, eroded petrogenic organic carbon that gets transferred back to the ocean and reburied does not affect atmospheric carbon content.
Mountain ranges play a key role in this transfer since they can source vast amounts of sediment including particulate organic carbon. Globally, the export of both, biospheric and petrogenic organic carbon has been linked to sediment export. Additionally, short transfer times from mountains to the ocean and high sediment concentrations have been shown to increase the likelihood of organic carbon burial. While the importance of mountain ranges in the organic carbon cycle is now widely recognized, the processes acting within mountain ranges to influence the storage, cycling and mobilization of organic carbon, as well as carbon fluxes from mountain ranges remain poorly constrained.
In this thesis, I employ different methods to assess the nature and fate of particulate organic carbon in mountain belts, ranging from the molecular to regional landscape scale. These studies are located along the Trans-Himalayan Kali Gandaki River in Central Nepal. This river traverses all major geological and climatic zones of the Himalaya, from the dry northern Tibetan plateau to the high-relief, monsoon dominated steep High Himalaya and the lower relief and abundant vegetation of the Lesser Himalayan region.
First, I document how biospheric organic matter has accumulated during the Holocene in the headwaters of the Kali Gandaki River valley, by combining compound specific isotope measurements with different dating methods and grain size data, and investigate the stability of this organic carbon reservoir on millennial timescales. I show, that around 1.6 ka an eco-geomorphic tipping point occurred leading to a destabilization of the landscape resulting in today’s high erosion rates and the excavation of the aged organic carbon reservoir. This study highlights the climatic and geomorphic controls on biospheric organic carbon storage and release from mountain ranges.
Second, I systematically investigate the spatial variation of particulate organic carbon fluxes across the Himalaya along the Kali Gandaki River, using bulk stable and radioactive isotopes combined with a new Bayesian modeling approach. The detailed dataset allows the distinction of aged and modern biospheric organic carbon as well as petrogenic organic carbon across the Himalayan mountain range and the investigation of the role of climatic and geomorphic factors in their riverine export. The data suggest a decoupling of the particulate organic carbon from the sediment yield along the Kali Gandaki River, partially driven by climatic and geomorphic processes. In contrast to the suspended sediment, a large part of the particulate organic carbon exported by the river originates from the Tibetan part of the catchment and is dominated by petrogenic organic carbon derived from Jurassic shales with only minor contributions of modern and aged biospheric organic carbon. These findings emphasize the importance of organic carbon source distribution and erosion mechanisms in determining the organic carbon export from mountain ranges.
In a third step, I explore the potential of ultra-high resolution mass spectrometry for particulate organic carbon transport studies. I have generated a novel and unprecedented high-resolution molecular dataset, which contains up to 103 molecular formulas of the lipid fraction of particulate organic matter for modern and aged biospheric carbon, petrogenic organic carbon and river sediments. First, I test if this dataset can be used to better resolve different organic carbon sources and to identify new geochemical tracers. Using multivariate statistics, I identify up to 10² characteristic molecular formulas for the major organic carbon sources in the upper part of the Kali Gandaki catchment, and trace their transfer from the surrounding landscape into the river sediment. Second, I test the potential of the molecular dataset to trace molecular transformations along source-to-sink pathways. I identify changes in molecular metrics derived from the dataset, which are characteristic of transformation processes during incorporation of litter into soil, the aging of soil material, and the mobilization of the organic carbon into the river. These two studies demonstrate that high-resolution molecular datasets open a promising analytical window on particulate organic carbon and can provide novel insights into the composition, sourcing and transformation of riverine particulate organic carbon.
Collectively, these studies advance our understanding of the processes contributing to the storage and mobilization of organic carbon in the Central Himalaya, the mountain belt that dominates global erosional fluxes. They do so by identifying the major sources of particulate organic carbon to the Trans-Himalayan Kali Gandaki River, by elucidating their sensitivity to climate and geomorphic processes, and by identifying some of the transformations of this material on the molecular scale. As a result, the thesis demonstrates that the amount and composition of organic carbon routed from mountain belts is a function of the dynamic interactions of geologic, biologic, geomorphic and climatic processes within the mountain belt. This understanding will ultimately help in answering whether the build-up and erosion of mountain ranges over geological time represents a net carbon source or sink to the atmosphere. Beyond this, the thesis contributes to our technical ability to characterize organic matter and attribute it to sources by scoping the potential of high-end molecular analysis.
High Mountain Asia (HMA) is dependent upon both the amount and timing of snow and glacier meltwater. Previous model studies and coarse resolution (0.25° × 0.25°, ∼25 km × 25 km) passive microwave assessments of trends in the volume and timing of snowfall, snowmelt, and glacier melt in HMA have identified key spatial and seasonal heterogeneities in the response of snow to changes in regional climate. Here we use recently developed, continuous, internally consistent, and high-resolution passive microwave data (3.125 km × 3.125 km, 1987–2016) from the special sensor microwave imager instrument family to refine and extend previous estimates of changes in the snow regime of HMA. We find an overall decline in snow volume across HMA; however, there exist spatially contiguous regions of increasing snow volume—particularly during the winter season in the Pamir, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Kunlun Shan. Detailed analysis of changes in snow-volume trends through time reveal a large step change from negative trends during the period 1987–1997, to much more positive trends across large regions of HMA during the periods 1997–2007 and 2007–2016. We also find that changes in high percentile monthly snow-water volume exhibit steeper trends than changes in low percentile snow-water volume, which suggests a reduction in the frequency of high snow-water volumes in much of HMA. Regions with positive snow-water storage trends generally correspond to regions of positive glacier mass balances.
High Mountain Asia (HMA) is dependent upon both the amount and timing of snow and glacier meltwater. Previous model studies and coarse resolution (0.25° × 0.25°, ∼25 km × 25 km) passive microwave assessments of trends in the volume and timing of snowfall, snowmelt, and glacier melt in HMA have identified key spatial and seasonal heterogeneities in the response of snow to changes in regional climate. Here we use recently developed, continuous, internally consistent, and high-resolution passive microwave data (3.125 km × 3.125 km, 1987–2016) from the special sensor microwave imager instrument family to refine and extend previous estimates of changes in the snow regime of HMA. We find an overall decline in snow volume across HMA; however, there exist spatially contiguous regions of increasing snow volume—particularly during the winter season in the Pamir, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Kunlun Shan. Detailed analysis of changes in snow-volume trends through time reveal a large step change from negative trends during the period 1987–1997, to much more positive trends across large regions of HMA during the periods 1997–2007 and 2007–2016. We also find that changes in high percentile monthly snow-water volume exhibit steeper trends than changes in low percentile snow-water volume, which suggests a reduction in the frequency of high snow-water volumes in much of HMA. Regions with positive snow-water storage trends generally correspond to regions of positive glacier mass balances.
Der Klimawandel
(2020)
In this study we examine the tonal organization of a series of recordings of liturgical chants, sung in 1966 by the Georgian master singer Artem Erkomaishvili. This dataset is the oldest corpus of Georgian chants from which the time synchronous F0-trajectories for all three voices have been reliably determined (Müller et al. 2017). It is therefore of outstanding importance for the understanding of the tuning principles of traditional Georgian vocal music.
The aim of the present study is to use various computational methods to analyze what these recordings can contribute to the ongoing scientific dispute about traditional Georgian tuning systems. Starting point for the present analysis is the re-release of the original audio data together with estimated fundamental frequency (F0) trajectories for each of the three voices, beat annotations, and digital scores (Rosenzweig et al. 2020). We present synoptic models for the pitch and the harmonic interval distributions, which are the first of such models for which the complete Erkomaishvili dataset was used. We show that these distributions can be very compactly be expressed as Gaussian mixture models, anchored on discrete sets of pitch or interval values for the pitch and interval distributions, respectively. As part of our study we demonstrate that these pitch values, which we refer to as scale pitches, and which are determined as the mean values of the Gaussian mixture elements, define the scale degrees of the melodic sound scales which build the skeleton of Artem Erkomaishvili’s intonation. The observation of consistent pitch bending of notes in melodic phrases, which appear in identical form in a group of chants, as well as the observation of harmonically driven intonation adjustments, which are clearly documented for all pure harmonic intervals, demonstrate that Artem Erkomaishvili intentionally deviates from the scale pitch skeleton quite freely. As a central result of our study, we proof that this melodic freedom is always constrained by the attracting influence of the scale pitches. Deviations of the F0-values of individual note events from the scale pitches at one instance of time are compensated for in the subsequent melodic steps. This suggests a deviation-compensation mechanism at the core of Artem Erkomaishvili’s melody generation, which clearly honors the scales but still allows for a large degree of melodic flexibility. This model, which summarizes all partial aspects of our analysis, is consistent with the melodic scale models derived from the observed pitch distributions, as well as with the melodic and harmonic interval distributions. In addition to the tangible results of our work, we believe that our work has general implications for the determination of tuning models from audio data, in particular for non-tempered music.
Permafrost is warming in the northern high latitudes, inducing highly dynamic thaw-related permafrost disturbances across the terrestrial Arctic. Monitoring and tracking of permafrost disturbances is important as they impact surrounding landscapes, ecosystems and infrastructure. Remote sensing provides the means to detect, map, and quantify these changes homogeneously across large regions and time scales. Existing Landsat-based algorithms assess different types of disturbances with similar spatiotemporal requirements. However, Landsat-based analyses are restricted in northern high latitudes due to the long repeat interval and frequent clouds, in particular at Arctic coastal sites. We therefore propose to combine Landsat and Sentinel-2 data for enhanced data coverage and present a combined annual mosaic workflow, expanding currently available algorithms, such as LandTrendr, to achieve more reliable time series analysis. We exemplary test the workflow for twelve sites across the northern high latitudes in Siberia. We assessed the number of images and cloud-free pixels, the spatial mosaic coverage and the mosaic quality with spectral comparisons. The number of available images increased steadily from 1999 to 2019 but especially from 2016 onward with the addition of Sentinel-2 images. Consequently, we have an increased number of cloud-free pixels even under challenging environmental conditions, which then serve as the input to the mosaicking process. In a comparison of annual mosaics, the Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaics always fully covered the study areas (99.9–100 %), while Landsat-only mosaics contained data-gaps in the same years, only reaching coverage percentages of 27.2 %, 58.1 %, and 69.7 % for Sobo Sise, East Taymyr, and Kurungnakh in 2017, respectively. The spectral comparison of Landsat image, Sentinel-2 image, and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic showed high correlation between the input images and mosaic bands (e.g., for Kurungnakh 0.91–0.97 between Landsat and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic and 0.92–0.98 between Sentinel-2 and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic) across all twelve study sites, testifying good quality mosaic results. Our results show that especially the results for northern, coastal areas was substantially improved with the Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaics. By combining Landsat and Sentinel-2 data we accomplished to create reliably high spatial resolution input mosaics for time series analyses. Our approach allows to apply a high temporal continuous time series analysis to northern high latitude permafrost regions for the first time, overcoming substantial data gaps, and assess permafrost disturbance dynamics on an annual scale across large regions with algorithms such as LandTrendr by deriving the location, timing and progression of permafrost thaw disturbances
Permafrost is warming in the northern high latitudes, inducing highly dynamic thaw-related permafrost disturbances across the terrestrial Arctic. Monitoring and tracking of permafrost disturbances is important as they impact surrounding landscapes, ecosystems and infrastructure. Remote sensing provides the means to detect, map, and quantify these changes homogeneously across large regions and time scales. Existing Landsat-based algorithms assess different types of disturbances with similar spatiotemporal requirements. However, Landsat-based analyses are restricted in northern high latitudes due to the long repeat interval and frequent clouds, in particular at Arctic coastal sites. We therefore propose to combine Landsat and Sentinel-2 data for enhanced data coverage and present a combined annual mosaic workflow, expanding currently available algorithms, such as LandTrendr, to achieve more reliable time series analysis. We exemplary test the workflow for twelve sites across the northern high latitudes in Siberia. We assessed the number of images and cloud-free pixels, the spatial mosaic coverage and the mosaic quality with spectral comparisons. The number of available images increased steadily from 1999 to 2019 but especially from 2016 onward with the addition of Sentinel-2 images. Consequently, we have an increased number of cloud-free pixels even under challenging environmental conditions, which then serve as the input to the mosaicking process. In a comparison of annual mosaics, the Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaics always fully covered the study areas (99.9–100 %), while Landsat-only mosaics contained data-gaps in the same years, only reaching coverage percentages of 27.2 %, 58.1 %, and 69.7 % for Sobo Sise, East Taymyr, and Kurungnakh in 2017, respectively. The spectral comparison of Landsat image, Sentinel-2 image, and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic showed high correlation between the input images and mosaic bands (e.g., for Kurungnakh 0.91–0.97 between Landsat and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic and 0.92–0.98 between Sentinel-2 and Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaic) across all twelve study sites, testifying good quality mosaic results. Our results show that especially the results for northern, coastal areas was substantially improved with the Landsat+Sentinel-2 mosaics. By combining Landsat and Sentinel-2 data we accomplished to create reliably high spatial resolution input mosaics for time series analyses. Our approach allows to apply a high temporal continuous time series analysis to northern high latitude permafrost regions for the first time, overcoming substantial data gaps, and assess permafrost disturbance dynamics on an annual scale across large regions with algorithms such as LandTrendr by deriving the location, timing and progression of permafrost thaw disturbances
Uplift in the broken Andean foreland of the Argentine Santa Bárbara System (SBS) is associated with the contractional reactivation of basement anisotropies, similar to those reported from the thick-skinned Cretaceous-Eocene Laramide province of North America. Fault scarps, deformed Quaternary deposits and landforms, disrupted drainage patterns, and medium-sized earthquakes within the SBS suggest that movement along these structures may be a recurring phenomenon, with yet to be defined repeat intervals and rupture lengths. In contrast to the Subandes thrust belt farther north, where eastward-migrating deformation has generated a well-defined thrust front, the SBS records spatiotemporally disparate deformation along structures that are only known to the first order. We present herein the results of geomorphic desktop analyses, structural field observations, and 2D electrical resistivity tomography and seismic-refraction tomography surveys and an interpretation of seismic reflection profiles across suspected fault scarps in the sedimentary basins adjacent to the Candelaria Range (CR) basement uplift, in the south-central part of the SBS. Our analysis in the CR piedmont areas reveals consistency between the results of near-surface electrical resistivity and seismic-refraction tomography surveys, the locations of prominent fault scarps, and structural geometries at greater depth imaged by seismic reflection data. We suggest that this deformation is driven by deep-seated blind thrusting beneath the CR and associated regional warping, while shortening involving Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary strata in the adjacent basins was accommodated by layer-parallel folding and flexural-slip faults that cut through Quaternary landforms and deposits at the surface.
Uplift in the broken Andean foreland of the Argentine Santa Bárbara System (SBS) is associated with the contractional reactivation of basement anisotropies, similar to those reported from the thick-skinned Cretaceous-Eocene Laramide province of North America. Fault scarps, deformed Quaternary deposits and landforms, disrupted drainage patterns, and medium-sized earthquakes within the SBS suggest that movement along these structures may be a recurring phenomenon, with yet to be defined repeat intervals and rupture lengths. In contrast to the Subandes thrust belt farther north, where eastward-migrating deformation has generated a well-defined thrust front, the SBS records spatiotemporally disparate deformation along structures that are only known to the first order. We present herein the results of geomorphic desktop analyses, structural field observations, and 2D electrical resistivity tomography and seismic-refraction tomography surveys and an interpretation of seismic reflection profiles across suspected fault scarps in the sedimentary basins adjacent to the Candelaria Range (CR) basement uplift, in the south-central part of the SBS. Our analysis in the CR piedmont areas reveals consistency between the results of near-surface electrical resistivity and seismic-refraction tomography surveys, the locations of prominent fault scarps, and structural geometries at greater depth imaged by seismic reflection data. We suggest that this deformation is driven by deep-seated blind thrusting beneath the CR and associated regional warping, while shortening involving Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary strata in the adjacent basins was accommodated by layer-parallel folding and flexural-slip faults that cut through Quaternary landforms and deposits at the surface.
Ferruginous conditions were a prominent feature of the oceans throughout the Precambrian Eons and thus throughout much of Earth’s history. Organic matter mineralization and diagenesis within the ferruginous sediments that deposited from Earth’s early oceans likely played a key role in global biogeochemical cycling. Knowledge of organic matter mineralization in ferruginous sediments, however, remains almost entirely conceptual, as modern analogue environments are extremely rare and largely unstudied, to date. Lake Towuti on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia is such an analogue environment and the purpose of this PhD project was to investigate the rates and pathways of organic matter mineralization in its ferruginous sediments.
Lake Towuti is the largest tectonic lake in Southeast Asia and is hosted in the mafic and ultramafic rocks of the East Sulawesi Ophiolite. It has a maximum water depth of 203 m and is weakly thermally stratified. A well-oygenated surface layer extends to 70 m depth, while waters below 130 m are persistently anoxic. Intensive weathering of the ultramafic catchment feeds the lake with large amounts of iron(oxy)hydroxides while the runoff contains only little sulfate, leading to sulfate-poor (< 20 µM) lake water and anoxic ferruginous conditions below 130 m. Such conditions are analogous to the ferruginous water columns that persisted throughout much of the Archean and Proterozoic eons. Short (< 35 cm) sediment cores were collected from different water depths corresponding to different bottom water redox conditions. Also, a drilling campaign of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) retrieved a 114 m long sediment core dedicated for geomicrobiological investigations from a water depth of 153 m, well below the depth of oxygen penetration at the time of sampling. Samples collected from these sediment cores form the fundament of this thesis and were used to perform a suite of biogeochemical and microbiological analyses.
Geomirobiological investigations depend on uncontaminated samples. However, exploration of subsurface environments relies on drilling, which requires the use of a drilling fluid. Drilling fluid infiltration during drilling can not be avoided. Thus, in order to trace contamination of the sediment core and to identify uncontaminated samples for further analyses a simple and inexpensive technique for assessing contamination during drilling operations was developed and applied during the ICDP drilling campaign. This approach uses an aqeous fluorescent pigment dispersion commonly used in the paint industry as a particulate tracer. It has the same physical properties as conventionally used particulate tracers. However, the price is nearly four orders of magnitude lower solving the main problem of particulate tracer approaches. The approach requires only a minimum of equipment and allows for a rapid contamination assessment potentially even directly on site, while the senstitivity is in the range of already established approaches. Contaminated samples in the drill core were identified and not included for further geomicrobiological investigations.
Biogeochemical analyses of short sediment cores showed that Lake Towutis sediments are strongly depleted in electron acceptors commonly used in microbial organic matter mineralization (i.e. oxygen, nitrate, sulfate). Still, the sediments harbor high microbial cell densities, which are a function of redox conditions of Lake Towuti’s bottom water. In shallow water depths bottom water oxygenation leads to a higher input of labile organic matter and electron acceptors like sulfate and iron, which promotes a higher microbial abundance. Microbial analyses showed that a versatile microbial community with a potential to perform metabolisms related to iron and sulfate reduction, fermentation as well as methanogenesis inhabits Lake Towuti’s surface sediments.
Biogeochemical investigations of the upper 12 m of the 114 m sediment core showed that Lake Towuti’s sediment is extremely rich in iron with total concentrations up to 2500 µmol cm-3 (20 wt. %), which makes it the natural sedimentary environment with the highest total iron concentrations studied to date. In the complete or near absence of oxygen, nitrate and sulfate, organic matter mineralization in ferruginous sediments would be expected to proceed anaerobically via the energetically most favorable terminal electron acceptors available - in this case ferric iron. Astonishingly, however, methanogenesis is the dominant (>85 %) organic matter mineralization process in Lake Towuti’s sediment. Reactive ferric iron known to be available for microbial iron reduction is highly abundant throughout the upper 12 m and thus remained stable for at least 60.000 years. The produced methane is not oxidized anaerobically and diffuses out of the sediment into the water column. The proclivity towards methanogenesis, in these very iron-rich modern sediments, implies that methanogenesis may have played a more important role in organic matter mineralization thoughout the Precambrian than previously thought and thus could have been a key contributor to Earth’s early climate dynamics.
Over the whole sequence of the 114 m long sediment core siderites were identified and characterized using high-resolution microscopic and spectroscopic imaging together with microchemical and geochemical analyses. The data show early diagenetic growth of siderite crystals as a response to sedimentary organic matter mineralization. Microchemical zoning was identified in all siderite crystals. Siderite thus likely forms during diagenesis through growth on primary existing phases and the mineralogical and chemical features of these siderites are a function of changes in redox conditions of the pore water and sediment over time. Identification of microchemical zoning in ancient siderites deposited in the Precambrian may thus also be used to infer siderite growth histories in ancient sedimentary rocks including sedimentary iron formations.
Salt pans are highly dynamic environments that are difficult to study by in situ methods because of their harsh climatic conditions and large spatial areas. Remote sensing can help to elucidate their environmental dynamics and provide important constraints regarding their sedimentological, mineralogical, and hydrological evolution. This study utilizes spaceborne multitemporal multispectral optical data combined with spectral endmembers to document spatial distribution of surface crust types over time on the Omongwa pan located in the Namibian Kalahari. For this purpose, 49 surface samples were collected for spectral and mineralogical characterization during three field campaigns (2014–2016) reflecting different seasons and surface conditions of the salt pan. An approach was developed to allow the spatiotemporal analysis of the salt pan crust dynamics in a dense time-series consisting of 77 Landsat 8 cloud-free scenes between 2014 and 2017, covering at least three major wet–dry cycles. The established spectral analysis technique Sequential Maximum Angle Convex Cone (SMACC) extraction method was used to derive image endmembers from the Landsat time-series stack. Evaluation of the extracted endmember set revealed that the multispectral data allowed the differentiation of four endmembers associated with mineralogical mixtures of the crust’s composition in dry conditions and three endmembers associated with flooded or muddy pan conditions. The dry crust endmember spectra have been identified in relation to visible, near infrared, and short-wave infrared (VNIR–SWIR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of the collected surface samples. According these results, the spectral endmembers are interpreted as efflorescent halite crust, mixed halite–gypsum crust, mixed calcite quartz sepiolite crust, and gypsum crust. For each Landsat scene the spatial distribution of these crust types was mapped with the Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) method and significant spatiotemporal dynamics of the major surface crust types were observed. Further, the surface crust dynamics were analyzed in comparison with the pan’s moisture regime and other climatic parameters. The results show that the crust dynamics are mainly driven by flooding events in the wet season, but are also influenced by temperature and aeolian activity in the dry season. The approach utilized in this study combines the advantages of multitemporal satellite data for temporal event characterization with advantages from hyperspectral methods for the image and ground data analyses that allow improved mineralogical differentiation and characterization.
Salt pans are highly dynamic environments that are difficult to study by in situ methods because of their harsh climatic conditions and large spatial areas. Remote sensing can help to elucidate their environmental dynamics and provide important constraints regarding their sedimentological, mineralogical, and hydrological evolution. This study utilizes spaceborne multitemporal multispectral optical data combined with spectral endmembers to document spatial distribution of surface crust types over time on the Omongwa pan located in the Namibian Kalahari. For this purpose, 49 surface samples were collected for spectral and mineralogical characterization during three field campaigns (2014–2016) reflecting different seasons and surface conditions of the salt pan. An approach was developed to allow the spatiotemporal analysis of the salt pan crust dynamics in a dense time-series consisting of 77 Landsat 8 cloud-free scenes between 2014 and 2017, covering at least three major wet–dry cycles. The established spectral analysis technique Sequential Maximum Angle Convex Cone (SMACC) extraction method was used to derive image endmembers from the Landsat time-series stack. Evaluation of the extracted endmember set revealed that the multispectral data allowed the differentiation of four endmembers associated with mineralogical mixtures of the crust’s composition in dry conditions and three endmembers associated with flooded or muddy pan conditions. The dry crust endmember spectra have been identified in relation to visible, near infrared, and short-wave infrared (VNIR–SWIR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of the collected surface samples. According these results, the spectral endmembers are interpreted as efflorescent halite crust, mixed halite–gypsum crust, mixed calcite quartz sepiolite crust, and gypsum crust. For each Landsat scene the spatial distribution of these crust types was mapped with the Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) method and significant spatiotemporal dynamics of the major surface crust types were observed. Further, the surface crust dynamics were analyzed in comparison with the pan’s moisture regime and other climatic parameters. The results show that the crust dynamics are mainly driven by flooding events in the wet season, but are also influenced by temperature and aeolian activity in the dry season. The approach utilized in this study combines the advantages of multitemporal satellite data for temporal event characterization with advantages from hyperspectral methods for the image and ground data analyses that allow improved mineralogical differentiation and characterization.
Triaxial high temperature (900 °C) deformation experiments were conducted at constant strain rate in a Paterson-type deformation apparatus on cylinders of Carrara marble with two right or left stepping, non-overlapping weak inclusions of Solnhofen limestone, oriented at 45° to the cylinders’ longitudinal axes. Applying different values of confinement (30, 50, 100 and 300 MPa) we induced various amounts of brittle deformation in the marble matrix and investigated the effect of brittle precursors on the initiation and development of heterogeneity-induced high temperature shear zones.
Viscosity contrast between the matrix and the inclusions induces local stress concentration at the tips of these latter. The initial arrangement of the inclusions results in either an overpressured (contractional) or underpressured (extensional) domain in the step-over region of the sample. At low confinement (30 and 50 MPa) abundant brittle deformation is observed, but the spatial distribution of microfractures is dependent on the kinematics of the step-over region: microcracks occur either along the shearing plane between inclusions (in extensional bridge samples), or broadly distributed outside the step-over region (contractional bridge samples). Accordingly, ductile deformation localizes along the inclusions plane in the extensional bridge samples as opposed to distributing over large areas of the matrix in the contractional bridge samples. If microcracking is suppressed (high confinement), strain is accommodated by viscous creep and strain progressively de-localizes in extensional bridge samples. Our experiments demonstrate that brittle precursors enhance the degree of localization in the ductile deformation regime, but only if the interaction of pre-existing heterogeneities induces an extensional mean stress regime in between.
Sedimentary ancient DNA has been proposed as a key methodology for reconstructing biodiversity over time. Yet, despite the concentration of Earth’s biodiversity in the tropics, this method has rarely been applied in this region. Moreover, the taphonomy of sedimentary DNA, especially in tropical environments, is poorly understood. This study elucidates challenges and opportunities of sedimentary ancient DNA approaches for reconstructing tropical biodiversity. We present shotgun-sequenced metagenomic profiles and DNA degradation patterns from multiple sediment cores from Mubwindi Swamp, located in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (Uganda), one of the most diverse forests in Africa. We describe the taxonomic composition of the sediments covering the past 2200 years and compare the sedimentary DNA data with a comprehensive set of environmental and sedimentological parameters to unravel the conditions of DNA degradation. Consistent with the preservation of authentic ancient DNA in tropical swamp sediments, DNA concentration and mean fragment length declined exponentially with age and depth, while terminal deamination increased with age. DNA preservation patterns cannot be explained by any environmental parameter alone, but age seems to be the primary driver of DNA degradation in the swamp. Besides degradation, the presence of living microbial communities in the sediment also affects DNA quantity. Critically, 92.3% of our metagenomic data of a total 81.8 million unique, merged reads cannot be taxonomically identified due to the absence of genomic references in public databases. Of the remaining 7.7%, most of the data (93.0%) derive from Bacteria and Archaea, whereas only 0–5.8% are from Metazoa and 0–6.9% from Viridiplantae, in part due to unbalanced taxa representation in the reference data. The plant DNA record at ordinal level agrees well with local pollen data but resolves less diversity. Our animal DNA record reveals the presence of 41 native taxa (16 orders) including Afrotheria, Carnivora, and Ruminantia at Bwindi during the past 2200 years. Overall, we observe no decline in taxonomic richness with increasing age suggesting that several-thousand-year-old information on past biodiversity can be retrieved from tropical sediments. However, comprehensive genomic surveys of tropical biota need prioritization for sedimentary DNA to be a viable methodology for future tropical biodiversity studies.
Sedimentary ancient DNA has been proposed as a key methodology for reconstructing biodiversity over time. Yet, despite the concentration of Earth’s biodiversity in the tropics, this method has rarely been applied in this region. Moreover, the taphonomy of sedimentary DNA, especially in tropical environments, is poorly understood. This study elucidates challenges and opportunities of sedimentary ancient DNA approaches for reconstructing tropical biodiversity. We present shotgun-sequenced metagenomic profiles and DNA degradation patterns from multiple sediment cores from Mubwindi Swamp, located in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (Uganda), one of the most diverse forests in Africa. We describe the taxonomic composition of the sediments covering the past 2200 years and compare the sedimentary DNA data with a comprehensive set of environmental and sedimentological parameters to unravel the conditions of DNA degradation. Consistent with the preservation of authentic ancient DNA in tropical swamp sediments, DNA concentration and mean fragment length declined exponentially with age and depth, while terminal deamination increased with age. DNA preservation patterns cannot be explained by any environmental parameter alone, but age seems to be the primary driver of DNA degradation in the swamp. Besides degradation, the presence of living microbial communities in the sediment also affects DNA quantity. Critically, 92.3% of our metagenomic data of a total 81.8 million unique, merged reads cannot be taxonomically identified due to the absence of genomic references in public databases. Of the remaining 7.7%, most of the data (93.0%) derive from Bacteria and Archaea, whereas only 0–5.8% are from Metazoa and 0–6.9% from Viridiplantae, in part due to unbalanced taxa representation in the reference data. The plant DNA record at ordinal level agrees well with local pollen data but resolves less diversity. Our animal DNA record reveals the presence of 41 native taxa (16 orders) including Afrotheria, Carnivora, and Ruminantia at Bwindi during the past 2200 years. Overall, we observe no decline in taxonomic richness with increasing age suggesting that several-thousand-year-old information on past biodiversity can be retrieved from tropical sediments. However, comprehensive genomic surveys of tropical biota need prioritization for sedimentary DNA to be a viable methodology for future tropical biodiversity studies.
Salt pans also termed playas are common landscape features of hydrologically closed basins in arid and semiarid zones, where evaporation significantly exceeds the local precipitation. The analysis and monitoring of salt pan environments is important for the evaluation of current and future impact of these landscape features. Locally, salt pans have importance for the ecosystem, wildlife and human health, and through dust emissions they influence the climate on regional and global scales. Increasing economic exploitation of these environments in the last years, e.g. by brine extraction for raw materials, as well as climate change severely affect the water, material and energy balance of these systems. Optical remote sensing has the potential to characterise salt pan environments and to increase the understanding of processes in playa basins, as well as to assess wider impacts and feedbacks that exist between climate forcing and human intervention in their regions. Remote sensing techniques can provide information for extensive regions on a high temporal basis compared to traditional field samples and ground observations. Specifically, for salt pans that are often challenging to study because of their large size, remote location, and limited accessibility due to missing infrastructure and ephemeral flooding. Furthermore, the availability of current and upcoming hyperspectral remote sensing data opened the opportunity for the analyses of the complex reflectance signatures that relate to the mineralogical mixtures found in the salt pan sediments. However, these new advances in sensor technology, as well as increased data availability currently have not been fully explored for the study of salt pan environments. The potential of new sensors needs to be assessed and state of the art methods need to be adapted and improved to provide reliable information for in depth analysis of processes and characterisation of the recent condition, as well as to support long-term monitoring and to evaluate environmental impacts of changing climate and anthropogenic activity.
This thesis provides an assessment of the capabilities of optical remote sensing for the study of salt pan environments that combines the information of hyperspectral data with the increased temporal coverage of multispectral observations for a more complete understanding of spatial and temporal complexity of salt pan environments using the Omongwa salt pan located in the south-west Kalahari as a test site. In particular, hyperspectral data are used for unmixing of the mineralogical surface composition, spectral feature-based modelling for quantification of main crust components, as well as time-series based classification of multispectral data for the assessment of the long-term dynamic and the analysis of the seasonal process regime. The results show that the surface of the Omongwa pan can be categorized into three major crust types based on diagnostic absorption features and mineralogical ground truth data. The mineralogical crust types can be related to different zones of surface dynamic as well as pan morphology that influences brine flow during the pan inundation and desiccation cycles. Using current hyperspectral imagery, as well as simulated data of upcoming sensors, robust quantification of the gypsum component could be derived. For the test site the results further indicate that the crust dynamic is mainly driven by flooding events in the wet season, but it is also influenced by temperature and aeolian activity in the dry season. Overall, the scientific outcomes show that optical remote sensing can provide a wide range of information helpful for the study of salt pan environments. The thesis also highlights that remote sensing approaches are most relevant, when they are adapted to the specific site conditions and research scenario and that upcoming sensors will increase the potential for mineralogical, sedimentological and geomorphological analysis, and will improve the monitoring capabilities with increased data availability.
To investigate the reliability and stability of spherical harmonic models based on archeo/-paleomagnetic data, 2000 Geomagnetic models were calculated. All models are based on the same data set but with randomized uncertainties. Comparison of these models to the geomagnetic field model gufm1 showed that large scale magnetic field structures up to spherical harmonic degree 4 are stable throughout all models. Through a ranking of all models by comparing the dipole coefficients to gufm1 more realistic uncertainty estimates were derived than the authors of the data provide.
The derived uncertainty estimates were used in further modelling, which combines archeo/-paleomagnetic and historical data. The huge difference in data count, accuracy and coverage of these two very different data sources made it necessary to introduce a time dependent spatial damping, which was constructed to constrain the spatial complexity of the model. Finally 501 models were calculated by considering that each data point is a Gaussian random variable, whose mean is the original value and whose standard deviation is its uncertainty. The final model arhimag1k is calculated by taking the mean of the 501 sets of Gauss coefficients. arhimag1k fits different dependent and independent data sets well. It shows an early reverse flux patch at the core-mantle boundary between 1000 AD and 1200 AD at the location of the South Atlantic Anomaly today. Another interesting feature is a high latitude flux patch over Greenland between 1200 and 1400 AD. The dipole moment shows a constant behaviour between 1600 and 1840 AD.
In the second part of the thesis 4 new paleointensities from 4 different flows of the island Fogo, which is part of Cape Verde, are presented. The data is fitted well by arhimag1k with the exception of the value at 1663 of 28.3 microtesla, which is approximately 10 microtesla lower than the model suggest.
Orogenic peridotites represent portions of upper subcontinental mantle now incorporated in mountain belts. They often contain layers, lenses and irregular bodies of pyroxenite and eclogite. The origin of this heterogeneity and the nature of these layers is still debated but it is likely to involve processes such as transient melts coming from the crust or the mantle and segregating in magma conduits, crust-mantle interaction, upwelling of the asthenosphere and metasomatism. All these processes occur in the lithospheric mantle and are often related with the subduction of crustal rocks to mantle depths. In fact, during subduction, fluids and melts are released from the slab and can interact with the overlying mantle, making the study of deep melts in this environment crucial to understand mantle heterogeneity and crust-mantle interaction. The aim of this thesis is precisely to better constrain how such processes take place studying directly the melt trapped as primary inclusions in pyroxenites and eclogites. The Bohemian Massif, crystalline core of the Variscan belt, is targeted for these purposes because it contains orogenic peridotites with layers of pyroxenite and eclogite and other mafic rocks enclosed in felsic high pressure and ultra-high pressure crustal rocks. Within this Massif mafic rocks from two areas have been selected: the garnet clinopyroxenite in orogenic peridotite of the Granulitgebirge and the ultra-high pressure eclogite in the diamond-bearing gneisses of the Erzgebirge. In both areas primary melt inclusions were recognized in the garnet, ranging in size between 2-25 µm and with different degrees of crystallization, from glassy to polycrystalline. They have been investigated with Micro Raman spectroscopy and EDS mapping and the mineral assemblage is kumdykolite, phlogopite, quartz, kokchetavite, phase with a main Raman peak at 430 cm-1, phase with a main Raman peak at 412 cm-1, white mica and calcite with some variability in relative abundance depending on the case study. In the Granulitgebirge osumilite and pyroxene are also present, whereas calcite is one of the main phases in the Erzgebirge. The presence of glass and the mineral assemblage in the nanogranitoids suggest that they were former droplets of melt trapped in the garnet while it was growing. Glassy inclusions and re-homogenized nanogranitoids show a silicate melt that is granitic, hydrous, high in alkalis and weakly peraluminous. The melt is also enriched in both case studies in Cs, Pb, Rb, U, Th, Li and B suggesting the involvement of crustal component, i.e. white mica (main carrier of Cs, Pb, Rb, Li and B), and a fluid (Cs, Th and U) in the melt producing reaction. The whole rock in both cases mainly consists of garnet and clinopyroxene with, in Erzgebirge samples, the additional presence of quartz both in the matrix and as a polycrystalline inclusion in the garnet. The latter is interpreted as a quartz pseudomorph after coesite and occurs in the same microstructural position as the melt inclusions. Both rock types show a crustal and subduction zone signature with garnet and clinopyroxene in equilibrium. Melt was likely present during the metamorphic peak of the rock, as it occurs in garnet.
Our data suggest that the processes most likely responsible for the formation of the investigated rocks in both areas is a metasomatic reaction between a melt produced in the crust and mafic layers formerly located in the mantle wedge for the Granulitgebirge and in the subducted continental crust itself in the Erzgebirge. Thus metasomatism in the first case took place in the mantle overlying the slab, whereas in the second case metasomatism took place in the continental crust that already contained, before subduction, mafic layers. Moreover, the presence of former coesite in the same microstructural position of the melt inclusions in the Erzgebirge garnets suggest that metasomatism took place at ultra-high pressure conditions.
Summarizing, in this thesis we provide new insights into the geodynamic evolution of the Bohemian Massif based on the study of melt inclusions in garnet in two different mafic rock types, combining the direct microstructural and geochemical investigation of the inclusions with the whole-rock and mineral geochemistry. We report for the first time data, directly extracted from natural rocks, on the metasomatic melt responsible for the metasomatism of several areas of the Bohemian Massif. Besides the two locations here investigated, belonging to the Saxothuringian Zone, a signature similar to the investigated melt is clearly visible in pyroxenite and peridotite of the T-7 borehole (again Saxothuringian Zone) and the durbachite suite located in the Moldanubian Zone.
Seismological and seismotectonic analysis of the northwestern Argentine Central Andean foreland
(2020)
After a severe M W 5.7 earthquake on October 17, 2015 in El Galpón in the province of Salta NW Argentina, I installed a local seismological network around the estimated epicenter. The network covered an area characterized by inherited Cretaceous normal faults and neotectonic faults with unknown recurrence intervals, some of which may have been reactivated normal faults. The 13 three-component seismic stations recorded data continuously for 15 months.
The 2015 earthquake took place in the Santa Bárbara System of the Andean foreland, at about 17km depth. This region is the easternmost morphostructural region of the central Andes. As a part of the broken foreland, it is bounded to the north by the Subandes fold-and-thrust belt and the Sierras Pampeanas to the south; to the east lies the Chaco-Paraná basin.
A multi-stage morphotectonic evolution with thick-skinned basement uplift and coeval thin-skinned deformation in the intermontane basins is suggested for the study area. The release of stresses associated with the foreland deformation can result in strong earthquakes, as the study area is known for recurrent and historical, destructive earthquakes. The available continuous record reaches back in time, when the strongest event in 1692 (magnitude 7 or intensity IX) destroyed the city of Esteco. Destructive earthquakes and surface deformation are thus a hallmark of this part of the Andean foreland.
With state-of-the-art Python packages (e.g. pyrocko, ObsPy), a semi-automatic approach is followed to analyze the collected continuous data of the seismological network. The resulting 1435 hypocenter locations consist of three different groups: 1.) local crustal earthquakes (nearly half of the events belong to this group), 2.) interplate activity, of regional distance in the slab of the Nazca-plate, and 3.) very deep earthquakes at about 600km depth. My major interest focused on the first event class. Those crustal events are partly aftershock events of the El Galpón earthquake and a second earthquake, in the south of the same fault. Further events can be considered as background seismicity of other faults within the study area. Strikingly, the seismogenic zone encompass the whole crust and propagates brittle deformation down, close to the Moho.
From the collected seismological data, a local seismic velocity model is estimated, using VELEST. After the execution of various stability tests, the robust minimum 1D-velocity model implies guiding values for the composition of the local, subsurface structure of the crust. Afterwards, performing a hypocenter relocation enables the assignment of individual earthquakes to aftershock clusters or extended seismotectonic structures. This allows the mapping of previously unknown seismogenic faults.
Finally, focal mechanisms are modeled for events with acurately located hypocenters, using the newly derived local velocity model. A compressive regime is attested by the majority of focal mechanisms, while the strike direction of the individual seismogenic structures is in agreement with the overall north – south orientation of the Central Andes, its mountain front, and individual mountain ranges in the southern Santa-Bárbara-System.
The current thesis contains the results from two experimental and one modelling study focused on the topic of ductile strain localization in the presence of material heterogeneities. Localization of strain in the high temperature regime is a well known feature of rock deformation occurring in nature at different scales and in a variety of lithologies. Large scale shear zones at the roots of major crustal fault zones are considered responsible for the activity of plate tectonics on our planet. A large number of mechanisms are suggested to be associated with strain softening and nucleation of localization. Among these, the presence of material heterogeneities within homogeneous host rocks is frequently observed in field examples to trigger shear zone development. Despite a number of studies conducted on the topic, the mechanisms controlling initiation and evolution of localization are not fully understood yet. We investigated, experimentally and by means of numerical modelling, phenomenological and microphysical aspects of high temperature strain localization in a homogeneous body containing single and paired inclusions of weaker material. A monomineralic carbonate system composed of Carrara marble (homogeneous, strong matrix) and Solnhofen limestone (weak planar inclusions) is selected for our studies based on its versatility as an experimental material and on the frequent occurrence of carbonate rocks at the core of natural shear zones.
To explore the influence of different loading conditions on heterogeneity-induced high temperature shear zones we conducted torsion experiments under constant twist (deformation) rate and constant torque (stress) conditions in a Paterson-type deformation apparatus on hollow cylinders of marble containing single planar inclusions of limestone. At the imposed experimental conditions (900 ◦C temperature and 400 MPa confining pressure) both materials deform plastically and the marble is ≈ 9 times stronger than the limestone. The viscosity contrast between the two materials induces a perturbation of the stress field within the marble matrix at the tip of the planar inclusion. Early on along the deformation path (at bulk shear strains ≈ 0.3), heterogeneous distribution of strain can be observed under both loading conditions and a small area of incipient strain localization is formed at the tip of the weak limestone inclusion. Strongly deformed grains, incipient dynamic recrystallization and a weak crystallographic preferred orientation characterize the marble within an area a few mm in front of the inclusion. As the bulk strain is increased (up to γ ≈ 1), the area of microstructural modification is expanded along the inclusion plane, the texture strengthens and grain size refinement by dynamic recrystallization becomes pervasive. Locally, evidences for coexisting brittle deformation are also observed regardless of the imposed loading conditions. A shear zone is effectively formed within the deforming Carrara marble, its geometry controlled by the plane containing the thin plate of limestone. Thorough microstructural and textural analysis, however, do not reveal substantial differences in the mechanisms or magnitude of strain localization at the different loading conditions. We conclude that, in the presence of material heterogeneities capable of inducing strain softening, the imposed loading conditions do not affect ductile localization in its nucleating and transient stages.
As the ultimate goal of experimental rock deformation is the extrapolation of results to geologically relevant time and space scales, we developed 2D numerical models reproducing (and benchmarked to) our experimental results. Our cm-scaled models have been implemented with a first-order strain-dependent softening law to reproduce the effect of rheological weakening in the deforming material. We successfully reproduced the local stress concentration at the inclusion tips and the strain localization initiated in the marble matrix. The heterogeneous distribution of strain and its evolution with imposed bulk deformation (i.e. the shape and extent of the nucleating shear zone) are observed to depend on the degree of softening imposed to the deforming matrix. When a second (artificial) softening step is introduced at elevated bulk strains in the model, the formation of a secondary high strain layer is observed at the core of the initial shear zone, analogous to the development of ultramylonite bands in high strain natural shear zones. Our results do not only reproduce the nucleation and transient evolution of a heterogeneity-induced high temperature shear zone with high accuracy, but also confirm the importance of introducing reliable softening laws capable of mimicking strain weakening to numerical models of crustal scale ductile processes.
Material heterogeneities inducing strain localization in the field are often consisting of brittle precursors (joints and fractures). More generally, the interaction of brittle and ductile deformation mechanisms and its effect on the localization of strain have been a key topic in the structural geology community for a long time. The positive feedback between (micro)fracturing and ductile strain localization is a well recognized effect in a number of field examples. We experimentally investigated the influence of brittle deformation on the initiation and evolution of high temperature shear zones in a strong matrix containing pairs of weak material heterogeneities. Our Carrara marble-Solnhofen limestone inclusions system was tested in triaxial compression under constant strain rate and high temperature (900 ◦C) conditions in a Paterson deformation apparatus. The inclusion pairs were arranged in non-overlapping step-over geometries of either compressional or extensional nature. Experimental runs were conducted at different confining pressures (30, 50, 100 and 300 MPa) to induce various amounts of brittle deformation within the marble matrix. At low confinement (30 and 50 MPa) abundant brittle deformation is observed in all configurations, but the spatial distribution of cracks is dependent on the kinematics of the step-over region: concentrated along the shearing plane between the inclusions in the extensional samples, or broadly distributed around the inclusions but outside the step-over region in the compressional configuration. Accordingly, brittle-assisted ductile processes tend to localize deformation along the inclusions plane in the extensional geometry or to distribute widely across large areas of the matrix in the compressional step-over. At pressures of 100 and 300 MPa fracturing is mostly suppressed in both configurations and strain is accommodated almost entirely by viscous creep. In extensional samples this leads to progressive de-localization with increasing confinement. Our results show that, while ductile localization of strain is indeed more efficient where assisted by brittle processes, these latter are only effective if themselves heterogeneously distributed, ultimately a function of the local stress perturbations.
The significant environmental and socioeconomic consequences of hydrometeorological extreme events, such as extreme rainfall, are constituted as a most important motivation for analyzing these events in the south-central Andes of NW Argentina. The steep topographic and climatic gradients and their interactions frequently lead to the formation of deep convective storms and consequently trigger extreme rainfall generation.
In this dissertation, I focus on identifying the dominant climatic variables and atmospheric conditions and their spatiotemporal variability leading to deep convection and extreme rainfall in the south-central Andes.
This dissertation first examines the significant contribution of temperature on atmospheric humidity (dew-point temperature, Td) and on convection (convective available potential energy, CAPE) for deep convective storms and hence, extreme rainfall along the topographic and climatic gradients. It was found that both climatic variables play an important role in extreme rainfall generation. However, their contributions differ depending on topographic and climatic sub-regions, as well as rainfall percentiles.
Second, this dissertation explores if (near real-time) the measurements conducted by the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) on integrated water vapor (IWV) provide reliable data for explaining atmospheric humidity. I argue that GNSS-IWV, in conjunction with other atmospheric stability parameters such as CAPE, is able to decipher the extreme rainfall in the eastern central Andes. In my work, I rely on a multivariable regression analysis described by a theoretical relationship and fitting function analysis.
Third, this dissertation identifies the local impact of convection on extreme rainfall in the eastern Andes. Relying on a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) it was found that during the existence of moist and warm air, extreme rainfall is observed more often during local night hours. The analysis includes the mechanisms for this observation.
Exploring the atmospheric conditions and climatic variables leading to extreme rainfall is one of the main findings of this dissertation. The conditions and variables are a prerequisite for understanding the dynamics of extreme rainfall and predicting these events in the eastern Andes.
RainNet v1.0
(2020)
In this study, we present RainNet, a deep convolutional neural network for radar-based precipitation nowcasting. Its design was inspired by the U-Net and SegNet families of deep learning models, which were originally designed for binary segmentation tasks. RainNet was trained to predict continuous precipitation intensities at a lead time of 5min, using several years of quality-controlled weather radar composites provided by the German Weather Service (DWD). That data set covers Germany with a spatial domain of 900km × 900km and has a resolution of 1km in space and 5min in time. Independent verification experiments were carried out on 11 summer precipitation events from 2016 to 2017. In order to achieve a lead time of 1h, a recursive approach was implemented by using RainNet predictions at 5min lead times as model inputs for longer lead times. In the verification experiments, trivial Eulerian persistence and a conventional model based on optical flow served as benchmarks. The latter is available in the rainymotion library and had previously been shown to outperform DWD's operational nowcasting model for the same set of verification events.
RainNet significantly outperforms the benchmark models at all lead times up to 60min for the routine verification metrics mean absolute error (MAE) and the critical success index (CSI) at intensity thresholds of 0.125, 1, and 5mm h⁻¹. However, rainymotion turned out to be superior in predicting the exceedance of higher intensity thresholds (here 10 and 15mm h⁻¹). The limited ability of RainNet to predict heavy rainfall intensities is an undesirable property which we attribute to a high level of spatial smoothing introduced by the model. At a lead time of 5min, an analysis of power spectral density confirmed a significant loss of spectral power at length scales of 16km and below. Obviously, RainNet had learned an optimal level of smoothing to produce a nowcast at 5min lead time. In that sense, the loss of spectral power at small scales is informative, too, as it reflects the limits of predictability as a function of spatial scale. Beyond the lead time of 5min, however, the increasing level of smoothing is a mere artifact – an analogue to numerical diffusion – that is not a property of RainNet itself but of its recursive application. In the context of early warning, the smoothing is particularly unfavorable since pronounced features of intense precipitation tend to get lost over longer lead times. Hence, we propose several options to address this issue in prospective research, including an adjustment of the loss function for model training, model training for longer lead times, and the prediction of threshold exceedance in terms of a binary segmentation task. Furthermore, we suggest additional input data that could help to better identify situations with imminent precipitation dynamics. The model code, pretrained weights, and training data are provided in open repositories as an input for such future studies.
RainNet v1.0
(2020)
In this study, we present RainNet, a deep convolutional neural network for radar-based precipitation nowcasting. Its design was inspired by the U-Net and SegNet families of deep learning models, which were originally designed for binary segmentation tasks. RainNet was trained to predict continuous precipitation intensities at a lead time of 5min, using several years of quality-controlled weather radar composites provided by the German Weather Service (DWD). That data set covers Germany with a spatial domain of 900km × 900km and has a resolution of 1km in space and 5min in time. Independent verification experiments were carried out on 11 summer precipitation events from 2016 to 2017. In order to achieve a lead time of 1h, a recursive approach was implemented by using RainNet predictions at 5min lead times as model inputs for longer lead times. In the verification experiments, trivial Eulerian persistence and a conventional model based on optical flow served as benchmarks. The latter is available in the rainymotion library and had previously been shown to outperform DWD's operational nowcasting model for the same set of verification events.
RainNet significantly outperforms the benchmark models at all lead times up to 60min for the routine verification metrics mean absolute error (MAE) and the critical success index (CSI) at intensity thresholds of 0.125, 1, and 5mm h⁻¹. However, rainymotion turned out to be superior in predicting the exceedance of higher intensity thresholds (here 10 and 15mm h⁻¹). The limited ability of RainNet to predict heavy rainfall intensities is an undesirable property which we attribute to a high level of spatial smoothing introduced by the model. At a lead time of 5min, an analysis of power spectral density confirmed a significant loss of spectral power at length scales of 16km and below. Obviously, RainNet had learned an optimal level of smoothing to produce a nowcast at 5min lead time. In that sense, the loss of spectral power at small scales is informative, too, as it reflects the limits of predictability as a function of spatial scale. Beyond the lead time of 5min, however, the increasing level of smoothing is a mere artifact – an analogue to numerical diffusion – that is not a property of RainNet itself but of its recursive application. In the context of early warning, the smoothing is particularly unfavorable since pronounced features of intense precipitation tend to get lost over longer lead times. Hence, we propose several options to address this issue in prospective research, including an adjustment of the loss function for model training, model training for longer lead times, and the prediction of threshold exceedance in terms of a binary segmentation task. Furthermore, we suggest additional input data that could help to better identify situations with imminent precipitation dynamics. The model code, pretrained weights, and training data are provided in open repositories as an input for such future studies.
This cumulative thesis is concerned with the evolution of geomagnetic activity since the beginning of the 20th century, that is, the time-dependent response of the geomagnetic field to solar forcing. The focus lies on the description of the magnetospheric response field at ground level, which is particularly sensitive to the ring current system, and an interpretation of its variability in terms of the solar wind driving. Thereby, this work contributes to a comprehensive understanding of long-term solar-terrestrial interactions.
The common basis of the presented publications is formed by a reanalysis of vector magnetic field measurements from geomagnetic observatories located at low and middle geomagnetic latitudes. In the first two studies, new ring current targeting geomagnetic activity indices are derived, the Annual and Hourly Magnetospheric Currents indices (A/HMC). Compared to existing indices (e.g., the Dst index), they do not only extend the covered period by at least three solar cycles but also constitute a qualitative improvement concerning the absolute index level and the ~11-year solar cycle variability. The analysis of A/HMC shows that (a) the annual geomagnetic activity experiences an interval-dependent trend with an overall linear decline during 1900–2010 of ~5 % (b) the average trend-free activity level amounts to ~28 nT (c) the solar cycle related variability shows amplitudes of ~15–45 nT (d) the activity level for geomagnetically quiet conditions (Kp<2) lies slightly below 20 nT. The plausibility of the last three points is ensured by comparison to independent estimations either based on magnetic field measurements from LEO satellite missions (since the 1990s) or the modeling of geomagnetic activity from solar wind input (since the 1960s). An independent validation of the longterm trend is problematic mainly because the sensitivity of the locally measured geomagnetic activity depends on geomagnetic latitude. Consequently, A/HMC is neither directly comparable to global geomagnetic activity indices (e.g., the aa index) nor to the partly reconstructed open solar magnetic flux, which requires a homogeneous response of the ground-based measurements to the interplanetary magnetic field and the solar wind speed.
The last study combines a consistent, HMC-based identification of geomagnetic storms from 1930–2015 with an analysis of the corresponding spatial (magnetic local time-dependent) disturbance patterns. Amongst others, the disturbances at dawn and dusk, particularly their evolution during the storm recovery phases, are shown to be indicative of the solar wind driving structure (Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections vs. Stream or Co-rotating Interaction Regions), which enables a backward-prediction of the storm driver classes. The results indicate that ICME-driven geomagnetic storms have decreased since 1930 which is consistent with the concurrent decrease of HMC. Out of the collection of compiled follow-up studies the inclusion of measurements from high-latitude geomagnetic observatories into the third study’s framework seems most promising at this point.
Hydrometric networks play a vital role in providing information for decision-making in water resource management. They should be set up optimally to provide as much information as possible that is as accurate as possible and, at the same time, be cost-effective. Although the design of hydrometric networks is a well-identified problem in hydrometeorology and has received considerable attention, there is still scope for further advancement. In this study, we use complex network analysis, defined as a collection of nodes interconnected by links, to propose a new measure that identifies critical nodes of station networks. The approach can support the design and redesign of hydrometric station networks. The science of complex networks is a relatively young field and has gained significant momentum over the last few years in different areas such as brain networks, social networks, technological networks, or climate networks. The identification of influential nodes in complex networks is an important field of research. We propose a new node-ranking measure – the weighted degree–betweenness (WDB) measure – to evaluate the importance of nodes in a network. It is compared to previously proposed measures used on synthetic sample networks and then applied to a real-world rain gauge network comprising 1229 stations across Germany to demonstrate its applicability. The proposed measure is evaluated using the decline rate of the network efficiency and the kriging error. The results suggest that WDB effectively quantifies the importance of rain gauges, although the benefits of the method need to be investigated in more detail.
Hydrometric networks play a vital role in providing information for decision-making in water resource management. They should be set up optimally to provide as much information as possible that is as accurate as possible and, at the same time, be cost-effective. Although the design of hydrometric networks is a well-identified problem in hydrometeorology and has received considerable attention, there is still scope for further advancement. In this study, we use complex network analysis, defined as a collection of nodes interconnected by links, to propose a new measure that identifies critical nodes of station networks. The approach can support the design and redesign of hydrometric station networks. The science of complex networks is a relatively young field and has gained significant momentum over the last few years in different areas such as brain networks, social networks, technological networks, or climate networks. The identification of influential nodes in complex networks is an important field of research. We propose a new node-ranking measure – the weighted degree–betweenness (WDB) measure – to evaluate the importance of nodes in a network. It is compared to previously proposed measures used on synthetic sample networks and then applied to a real-world rain gauge network comprising 1229 stations across Germany to demonstrate its applicability. The proposed measure is evaluated using the decline rate of the network efficiency and the kriging error. The results suggest that WDB effectively quantifies the importance of rain gauges, although the benefits of the method need to be investigated in more detail.
Near-Earth space represents a significant scientific and technological challenge. Particularly at magnetic low-latitudes, the horizontal magnetic field geometry at the dip equator and its closed field-lines support the existence of a distinct electric current system, abrupt electric field variations and the development of plasma irregularities. Of particular interest are small-scale irregularities associated with equatorial plasma depletions (EPDs). They are responsible for the disruption of trans-ionospheric radio waves used for navigation, communication, and Earth observation. The fast increase of satellite missions makes it imperative to study the near-Earth space, especially the phenomena known to harm space technology or disrupt their signals. EPDs correspond to the large-scale structure (i.e., tens to hundreds of kilometers) of topside F region irregularities commonly known as Spread F. They are observed as depleted-plasma density channels aligned with the ambient magnetic field in the post-sunset low-latitude ionosphere. Although the climatological variability of their occurrence in terms of season, longitude, local time and solar flux is well-known, their day to day variability is not. The sparse observations from ground-based instruments like radars and the few simultaneous measurements of ionospheric parameters by space-based instruments have left gaps in the knowledge of EPDs essential to comprehend their variability.
In this dissertation, I profited from the unique observations of the ESA’s Swarm constellation mission launched in November 2013 to tackle three issues that revealed novel and significant results on the current knowledge of EPDs. I used Swarm’s measurements of the electron density, magnetic, and electric fields to answer, (1.) what is the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic energy associated with EPDs?, (2.) what are the spatial and temporal characteristics of the electric currents (field-aligned and diamagnetic currents) related to EPDs, i.e., seasonal/geographical, and local time dependencies?, and (3.) under what conditions does the balance between magnetic and plasma pressure across EPDs occur?
The results indicate that: (1.) The electromagnetic energy associated with EPDs presents a preference for interhemispheric flows; that is, the related Poynting flux directs from one magnetic hemisphere to the other and varies with longitude and season. (2.) The field-aligned currents at the edges of EPDs are interhemispheric. They generally close in the hemisphere with the highest Pedersen conductance. Such hemispherical preference presents a seasonal/longitudinal dependence. The diamagnetic currents increase or decrease the magnetic pressure inside EPDs. These two effects rely on variations of the plasma temperature inside the EPDs that depend on longitude and local time. (3.) EPDs present lower or higher plasma pressure than the ambient. For low-pressure EPDs the plasma pressure gradients are mostly dominated by variations of the plasma density so that variations of the temperature are negligible. High-pressure EPDs suggest significant temperature variations with magnitudes of approximately twice the ambient. Since their occurrence is more frequent in the vicinity of the South Atlantic magnetic anomaly, such high temperatures are suggested to be due to particle precipitation.
In a broader context, this dissertation shows how dedicated satellite missions with high-resolution capabilities improve the specification of the low-latitude ionospheric electrodynamics and expand knowledge on EPDs which is valuable for current and future communication, navigation, and Earth-observing missions. The contributions of this investigation represent several ’firsts’ in the study of EPDs: (1.) The first observational evidence of interhemispheric electromagnetic energy flux and field-aligned currents. (2.) The first spatial and temporal characterization of EPDs based on their associated field-aligned and diamagnetic currents. (3.) The first evidence of high plasma pressure in regions of depleted plasma density in the ionosphere. These findings provide new insights that promise to advance our current knowledge of not only EPDs but the low-latitude post-sunset ionosphere environment.
Der zentralasiatische Naturraum, wie er sich uns heute präsentiert, ist das Ergebnis eines Zusammenwirkens vieler verschiedener Faktoren über Jahrmillionen hinweg. Im aktuellen Kontext des Klimawandels zeigt sich jedoch, wie stark sich Stoffflüsse auch kurzfristig ändern und dabei das Gesicht der Landschaft verwandeln können. Die Gobi-Wüste in der Inneren Mongolei (China), als Teil der gleichnamigen Trockenregionen Nordwestchinas, ist aufgrund der Ausgestaltung ihrer landschaftsprägenden Elemente sowie ihrer Landschaftsdynamik, im Zusammenhang mit der Lage zum Tibet-Plateau, in den Fokus der klimageschichtlichen Grundlagenforschung gerückt. Als großes Langzeitarchiv unterschiedlichster fluvialer, lakustriner und äolischer Sedimente stellt sie eine bedeutende Lokalität zur Rekonstruktion von lokalen und regionalen Stoffflüssen dar.. Andererseits ist die Gobi-Wüste zugleich auch eine bedeutende Quelle für den überregionalen Staubtransport, da sie aufgrund der klimatischen Bedingungen insbesondere der Erosion durch Ausblasung preisgegeben wird. Vor diesem Hintergrund erfolgten zwischen 2011 und 2014, im Rahmen des BMBF-Verbundprogramms WTZ Zentralasien – Monsundynamik & Geoökosysteme (Förderkennzeichen 03G0814), mehrere deutsch-chinesische Expeditionen in das Ejina-Becken (Innere Mongolei) und das Qilian Shan-Vorland. Im Zuge dieser Expeditionen wurden für eine Bestimmung potenzieller Sedimentquellen erstmals zahlreiche Oberflächenproben aus dem gesamten Einzugsgebiet des Heihe (schwarzer Fluss) gesammelt. Zudem wurden mit zwei Bohrungen im inneren des Ejina-Beckens, ergänzende Sedimentbohrkerne zum bestehenden Bohrkern D100 (siehe Wünnemann (2005)) abgeteuft, um weit reichende, ergänzende Informationen zur Landschaftsgeschichte und zum überregionalen Sedimenttransfer zu erhalten. Gegenstand und Ziel der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit ist die sedimentologisch-mineralogische Charakterisierung des Untersuchungsgebietes in Bezug auf potenzielle Sedimentquellen und Stoffflüsse des Ejina-Beckens sowie die Rekonstruktion der Ablagerungsgeschichte eines dort erbohrten, 19m langen Sedimentbohrkerns (GN100). Schwerpunkt ist hierbei die Klärung der Sedimentherkunft innerhalb des Bohrkerns sowie die Ausweisung von Herkunftssignalen und möglichen Sedimentquellen bzw. Sedimenttransportpfaden. Die methodische Herangehensweise basiert auf einem Multi-Proxy-Ansatz zur Charakterisierung der klastischen Sedimentfazies anhand von Geländebeobachtungen, lithologisch-granulometrischen und mineralogisch-geochemischen Analysen sowie statistischen Verfahren. Für die mineralogischen Untersuchungen der Sedimente wurde eine neue, rasterelektronenmikroskopische Methode zur automatisierten Partikelanalyse genutzt und den traditionellen Methoden gegenübergestellt. Die synoptische Betrachtung der granulometrischen, geochemischen und mineralogischen Befunde der Oberflächensedimente ergibt für das Untersuchungsgebiet ein logisches Kaskadenmodell mit immer wiederkehrenden Prozessbereichen und ähnlichen Prozesssignalen. Die umfangreichen granulometrischen Analysen deuten dabei auf abnehmende Korngrößen mit zunehmender Entfernung vom Qilian Shan hin und ermöglichen die Identifizierung von vier texturellen Signalen: den fluvialen Sanden, den Dünensanden, den Stillwassersedimenten und Stäuben. Diese Ergebnisse können als Interpretationsgrundlage für die Korngrößenanalysen des Bohrkerns genutzt werden. Somit ist es möglich, die Ablagerungsgeschichte der Bohrkernsedimente zu rekonstruieren und in Verbindung mit eigenen und literaturbasierten Datierungen in einen Gesamtkontext einzuhängen. Für das Untersuchungsgebiet werden somit vier Ablagerungsphasen ausgewiesen, die bis in die Zeit des letzten glazialen Maximums (LGM) zurückreichen. Während dieser Ablagerungsphasen kam es im Zuge unterschiedlicher Aktivitäts- und Stabilitätsphasen zu einer kontinuierlichen Progradation und Überprägung des Schwemmfächers. Eine besonders aktive Phase kann zwischen 8 ka und 4 ka BP festgestellt werden, während der es aufgrund zunehmender fluvialer Aktivitäten zu einer deutlich verstärkten Schwemmfächerdynamik gekommen zu sein scheint. In den Abschnitten davor und danach waren es vor allem äolische Prozesse, die zu einer Überprägung des Schwemmfächers geführt haben. Hinsichtlich der mineralogischen Herkunftssignale gibt es eine große Variabilität. Dies spiegelt die enorme Heterogenität der Geologie des Untersuchungsgebietes wider, wodurch die räumlichen Signale nicht sehr stark ausgeprägt sind. Dennoch, können für das Einzugsgebiet drei größere Bereiche deklariert werden, die als Herkunftsgebiet in Frage kommen. Das östliche Qilian Shan Vorland zeichnet sich dabei durch deutlich höhere Chloritgehalte als primäre Quelle für die Sedimente im Ejina-Becken aus. Sie unterscheiden sich insbesondere durch stark divergierende Chloritgehalte in der Tonmineral- und Gesamtmineralfraktion, was das östliche Qilian Shan Vorland als primäre Quelle für die Sedimente im Ejina-Becken auszeichnet. Dies steht in Zusammenhang mit den Grünschiefern, Ophioliten und Serpentiniten in diesem Bereich. Geochemisch deutet vor allem das Cr/Rb-Verhältnis eine große Variabilität innerhalb des Einzugsgebietes an. Auch hier ist es das östliche Vorland, welches aufgrund seines hohen Anteils an mafischen Gesteinen reich an Chromiten und Spinellen ist und sich somit vom restlichen Untersuchungsgebiet abhebt. Die zeitliche aber auch die generelle Variabilität der Sedimentherkunft lässt sich in den Bohrkernsedimenten nicht so deutlich nachzeichnen. Die mineralogisch-sedimentologischen Eigenschaften der erbohrten klastischen Sedimente zeugen zwar von zwischenzeitlichen Änderungen bei der Sedimentherkunft, diese sind jedoch nicht so deutlich ausgeprägt, wie es die Quellsignale in den Oberflächensedimenten vermuten lassen. Ein Grund dafür scheint die starke Vermischung unterschiedlichster Sedimente während des Transportes zu sein. Die Kombination der Korngrößenergebnisse mit den Befunden der Gesamt- und Schwermineralogie deuten darauf hin, dass es zwischenzeitlich eine Phase mit überwiegend äolischen Prozessen gegeben hat, die mit einem Sedimenteintrag aus dem westlichen Bei Shan in Verbindung stehen. Neben der Zunahme ultrastabiler Schwerminerale wie Zirkon und Granat und der Abnahme opaker Schwerminerale, weisen vor allem die heutigen Verhältnisse darauf hin. Der Vergleich der traditionellen Schwermineralanalyse mit der Computer-Controlled-Scanning-Electron-Microscopy (kurz: CCSEM), die eine automatisierte Partikelauswertung der Proben ermöglicht, zeigt den deutlichen Vorteil der modernen Analysemethode. Neben einem zeitlichen Vorteil, den man durch die automatisierte Abarbeitung der vorbereiteten Proben erlangen kann, steht vor allem die deutlich größere statistische Signifikanz des Ergebnisses im Vordergrund. Zudem können mit dieser Methode auch chemische Varietäten einiger Schwerminerale bestimmt werden, die eine noch feinere Klassifizierung und sicherere Aussagen zu einer möglichen Sedimentherkunft ermöglichen. Damit ergeben sich außerdem verbesserte Aussagen zu Zusammensetzungen und Entstehungsprozessen der abgelagerten Sedimente. Die Studie verdeutlicht, dass die Sedimentherkunft innerhalb des Untersuchungsgebietes sowie die ablaufenden Prozesse zum Teil stark von lokalen Gegebenheiten abhängen. Die Heterogenität der Geologie und die Größe des Einzugsgebietes sowie die daraus resultierende Komplexität der Sedimentgenese, machen exakte Zuordnungen zu klar definierten Sedimentquellen sehr schwer. Dennoch zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Sedimentzufuhr in das Ejina-Becken in erster Linie durch fluviale klastische Sedimente des Heihe aus dem Qilian Shan erfolgt sein muss. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse zeigen jedoch ebenso die Notwendigkeit einer ergänzenden Bearbeitung angrenzender Untersuchungsgebiete, wie beispielsweise den Gobi-Altai im Norden oder den Beishan im Westen, sowie die Verdichtung der Oberflächenbeprobung zur feineren Auflösung von lokalen Sedimentquellen.
The Andean Plateau (Altiplano-Puna Plateau) of the southern Central Andes is the second-highest orogenic plateau on our planet after Tibet. The Andean Plateau and its foreland exhibit a pronounced segmentation from north to south regarding the style and magnitude of deformation. In the Altiplano (northern segment), more than 300 km of tectonic shortening has been recorded, which started during the Eocene. A well-developed thin-skinned thrust wedge located at the eastern flank of the plateau (Subandes) indicates a simple-shear shortening mode. In contrast, the Puna (southern segment) records approximately half of the shortening of the Altiplano - and the shortening started later. The tectonic style in the Puna foreland switches to a thick-skinned mode, which is related to pure-shear shortening. In this study, carried out in the framework of the StRATEGy project, high-resolution 2D thermomechanical models were developed to systematically investigate controls of deformation patterns in the orogen-foreland pair. The 2D and 3D models were subsequently applied to study the evolution of foreland deformation and surface topography in the Altiplano-Puna Plateau. The models demonstrate that three principal factors control the foreland-deformation patterns: (i) strength differences in the upper lithosphere between the orogen and its foreland, rather than a strength difference in the entire lithosphere; (ii) gravitational potential energy of the orogen (GPE) controlled by crustal and lithospheric thicknesses, and (iii) the strength and thickness of foreland-basin sediments. The high-resolution 2D models are constrained by observations and successfully reproduce deformation structures and surface topography of different segments of the Altiplano-Puna plateau and its foreland. The developed 3D models confirm these results and suggest that a relatively high shortening rate in the Altiplano foreland (Subandean foreland fold-and-thrust belt) is due to simple-shear shortening facilitated by thick and mechanically weak sediments, a process which requires a much lower driving force than the pure-shear shortening deformation mode in the adjacent broken foreland of the Puna, where these thick sedimentary basin fills are absent. Lower shortening rate in the Puna foreland is likely accommodated in the forearc by the slab retreat.
Seismic receiver arrays have variety of applications in seismology, particularly when the signal enhancement is a prerequisite to detect seismic events, and in situations where installing and maintaining sparse networks are impractical. This thesis has mainly focused on the development of a new approach for seismological source and receiver array design.The proposed approach deals with the array design task as an optimization problem. The criteria and prerequisite constraints in array design task are integrated in objective function definition and evaluation of a optimization process. Three cases are covered in this thesis: (1) a 2-D receiver array geometry optimization, (2) a 3-D source array optimization, and (3) an array application to monitor microseismic data, where the effect of different types of noise are evaluated.
A flexible receiver array design framework implements a customizable scenario modelling and optimization scheme by making use of synthetic seismograms. Using synthetic seismograms to evaluate array performance makes it possible to consider additional constraints, e.g. land ownership, site-specific noise levels or characteristics of the seismic sources under investigation. The use of synthetic array beamforming as an array design criteria is suggested. The framework is customized by designing a 2-D small scale receiver array to monitor earthquake swarm activity in northwest Bohemia/ Vogtland in central Europe. Two sub-functions are defined to verify the accuracy of horizontal slowness estimation; one to suppress aliasing effects due to possible secondary lobes of synthetic array beamforming calculated in horizontal slowness space, and the other to reduce the event's mislocation caused by miscalculation of the horizontal slowness vector. Subsequently, a weighting technique is applied to combine the sub-functions into one single scalar objective function to use in the optimization process.
The idea of optimal array is employed to design a 3-D source array, given a well-located catalog of events. The conditions to make source arrays are formulated in four objective functions and a weighted sum technique is used to combine them in one single scalar function. The criteria are: (1) accurate slowness vector estimation, (2) high waveform coherency, (3) low location error and (4) high energy of coda phases. The method is evaluated by two experiments, (1) a synthetic test using realistic synthetic seismograms, (2) using real seismograms, and for each case optimized SA elements are configured using the data from the Vogtland area.
The location of a possible scatterer in the velocity model, that makes the converted/reflected phases, e.g. sp-phases, is retrieved by a grid search method using the optimized SA. The accuracy of the approach and the obtained results demonstrated that the method is applicable to study the crustal structure and the location of crustal scatterers when the strong converted phases are observed in the data and a well-located catalog is available.
Small aperture arrays are employed in seismology for a variety of applications, ranging from pure event detection to monitor and study of microcosmic activities. The monitoring of microseismicity during temporary human activities is often difficult, as the signal-to-noise ratio is very low and noise is strongly increased during the operation. The combination of small aperture seismic arrays with shallow borehole sensors offers a solution. We tested this monitoring approach at two different sites, (1) accompanying a fracking experiment in sedimentary shale at 4~km depth, and (2) above a gas field under depletion. Arrays recordings are compared with recordings available from shallow borehole sensors and examples of detection and location performance of the array are given. The effect of different types of noise at array and borehole stations are compared and discussed.
Seismological agencies play an important role in seismological research and seismic hazard mitigation by providing source parameters of seismic events (location, magnitude, mechanism), and keeping these data accessible in the long term. The availability of catalogues of seismic source parameters is an important requirement for the evaluation and mitigation of seismic hazards, and the catalogues are particularly valuable to the research community as they provide fundamental long-term data in the geophysical sciences. This work is well motivated by the rising demand for developing more robust and efficient methods for routine source parameter estimation, and ultimately generation of reliable catalogues of seismic source parameters. Specifically, the aim of this work is to develop some methods to determine hypocentre location and temporal evolution of seismic sources based on regional and teleseismic observations more accurately, and investigate the potential of these methods to be integrated in near real-time processing.
To achieve this, a location method that considers several events simultaneously and improves the relative location accuracy among nearby events has been provided. This method tries to reduce the biasing effects of the lateral velocity heterogeneities (or equivalently to compensate for limitations and inaccuracies in the assumed velocity model) by calculating a set of timing corrections for each seismic station. The systematic errors introduced into the locations by the inaccuracies in the assumed velocity structure can be corrected without explicitly solving for a velocity model. Application to sets of multiple earthquakes in complex tectonic environments with strongly heterogeneous structure such as subduction zones and plate boundary region demonstrate that this relocation process significantly improves the hypocentre locations compared to standard locations.
To meet the computational demands of this location process, a new open-source software package has been developed that allows for efficient relocation of large-scale multiple seismic events using arrival time data. Upon that, a flexible location framework is provided which can be tailored to various application cases on local, regional, and global scales. The latest version of the software distribution including source codes, a user guide, an example data set, and a change history, is freely available to the community.
The developed relocation algorithm has been modified slightly and then its performance in a simulated near real-time processing has been evaluated. It has been demonstrated that applying the proposed technique significantly reduces the bias in routine locations and enhance the ability to locate the lower magnitude events using only regional arrival data.
Finally, to return to emphasis on global seismic monitoring, an inversion framework has been developed to determine the seismic source time function through direct waveform fitting of teleseismic recordings. The inversion technique can be systematically applied to moderate- size seismic events and has the potential to be performed in near real-time applications. It is exemplified by application to an abnormal seismic event; the 2017 North Korean nuclear explosion.
The presented work and application case studies in this dissertation represent the first step in an effort to establish a framework for automatic, routine generation of reliable catalogues of seismic event locations and source time functions.
Many institutions struggle to tap into the potential of their large archives of radar reflectivity: these data are often affected by miscalibration, yet the bias is typically unknown and temporally volatile. Still, relative calibration techniques can be used to correct the measurements a posteriori. For that purpose, the usage of spaceborne reflectivity observations from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) platforms has become increasingly popular: the calibration bias of a ground radar (GR) is estimated from its average reflectivity difference to the spaceborne radar (SR). Recently, Crisologo et al. (2018) introduced a formal procedure to enhance the reliability of such estimates: each match between SR and GR observations is assigned a quality index, and the calibration bias is inferred as a quality-weighted average of the differences between SR and GR. The relevance of quality was exemplified for the Subic S-band radar in the Philippines, which is greatly affected by partial beam blockage.
The present study extends the concept of quality-weighted averaging by accounting for path-integrated attenuation (PIA) in addition to beam blockage. This extension becomes vital for radars that operate at the C or X band. Correspondingly, the study setup includes a C-band radar that substantially overlaps with the S-band radar. Based on the extended quality-weighting approach, we retrieve, for each of the two ground radars, a time series of calibration bias estimates from suitable SR overpasses. As a result of applying these estimates to correct the ground radar observations, the consistency between the ground radars in the region of overlap increased substantially. Furthermore, we investigated if the bias estimates can be interpolated in time, so that ground radar observations can be corrected even in the absence of prompt SR overpasses. We found that a moving average approach was most suitable for that purpose, although limited by the absence of explicit records of radar maintenance operations.
Many institutions struggle to tap into the potential of their large archives of radar reflectivity: these data are often affected by miscalibration, yet the bias is typically unknown and temporally volatile. Still, relative calibration techniques can be used to correct the measurements a posteriori. For that purpose, the usage of spaceborne reflectivity observations from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) platforms has become increasingly popular: the calibration bias of a ground radar (GR) is estimated from its average reflectivity difference to the spaceborne radar (SR). Recently, Crisologo et al. (2018) introduced a formal procedure to enhance the reliability of such estimates: each match between SR and GR observations is assigned a quality index, and the calibration bias is inferred as a quality-weighted average of the differences between SR and GR. The relevance of quality was exemplified for the Subic S-band radar in the Philippines, which is greatly affected by partial beam blockage.
The present study extends the concept of quality-weighted averaging by accounting for path-integrated attenuation (PIA) in addition to beam blockage. This extension becomes vital for radars that operate at the C or X band. Correspondingly, the study setup includes a C-band radar that substantially overlaps with the S-band radar. Based on the extended quality-weighting approach, we retrieve, for each of the two ground radars, a time series of calibration bias estimates from suitable SR overpasses. As a result of applying these estimates to correct the ground radar observations, the consistency between the ground radars in the region of overlap increased substantially. Furthermore, we investigated if the bias estimates can be interpolated in time, so that ground radar observations can be corrected even in the absence of prompt SR overpasses. We found that a moving average approach was most suitable for that purpose, although limited by the absence of explicit records of radar maintenance operations.
Geomechanical and petrological characterisation of exposed slip zones, Alpine Fault, New Zealand
(2020)
The Alpine Fault is a large, plate-bounding, strike-slip fault extending along the north-western edge of the Southern Alps, South Island, New Zealand. It regularly accommodates large (MW > 8) earthquakes and has a high statistical probability of failure in the near future, i.e., is late in its seismic cycle. This pending earthquake and associated co-seismic landslides are expected to cause severe infrastructural damage that would affect thousands of people, so it presents a substantial geohazard. The interdisciplinary study presented here aims to characterise the fault zone’s 4D (space and time) architecture, because this provides information about its rheological properties that will enable better assessment of the hazard
the fault poses.
The studies undertaken include field investigations of principal slip zone fault gouges exposed
along strike of the fault, and subsequent laboratory analyses of these outcrop and additional borehole samples. These observations have provided new information on (I) characteristic microstructures down to the nanoscale that indicate which deformation mechanisms operated within the rocks, (II) mineralogical information that constrains the fault’s geomechanical behaviour and (III) geochemical compositional information that allows the influence of fluid- related alteration processes on material properties to be unraveled.
Results show that along-strike variations of fault rock properties such as microstructures and mineralogical composition are minor and / or do not substantially influence fault zone architecture. They furthermore provide evidence that the architecture of the fault zone, particularly its fault core, is more complex than previously considered, and also more complex than expected for this sort of mature fault cutting quartzofeldspathic rocks. In particular our results strongly suggest that the fault has more than one principal slip zone, and that these form an anastomosing network extending into the basement below the cover of Quaternary sediments.
The observations detailed in this thesis highlight that two major processes, (I) cataclasis and (II) authigenic mineral formation, are the major controls on the rheology of the Alpine Fault. The velocity-weakening behaviour of its fault gouge is favoured by abundant nanoparticles
promoting powder lubrication and grain rolling rather than frictional sliding. Wall-rock fragmentation is accompanied by co-seismic, fluid-assisted dilatancy that is recorded by calcite cementation. This mineralisation, along with authigenic formation of phyllosilicates, quickly alters the petrophysical fault zone properties after each rupture, restoring fault competency. Dense networks of anastomosing and mutually cross-cutting calcite veins and intensively reworked gouge matrix demonstrate that strain repeatedly localised within the narrow fault gouge. Abundantly undeformed euhedral chlorite crystallites and calcite veins cross-cutting both fault gouge and gravels that overlie basement on the fault’s footwall provide evidence that the processes of authigenic phyllosilicate growth, fluid-assisted dilatancy and associated fault healing are processes active particularly close to the Earth’s surface in this fault zone.
Exposed Alpine Fault rocks are subject to intense weathering as direct consequence of abundant orogenic rainfall associated with the fault’s location at the base of the Southern Alps. Furthermore, fault rock rheology is substantially affected by shallow-depth conditions such as the juxtaposition of competent hanging wall fault rocks on poorly consolidated footwall sediments. This means microstructural, mineralogical and geochemical properties of the exposed fault rocks may differ substantially from those at deeper levels, and thus are not characteristic of the majority of the fault rocks’ history. Examples are (I) frictionally weak smectites found within the fault gouges being artefacts formed at temperature conditions, and imparting petrophysical properties that are not typical for most of fault rocks of the Alpine Fault, (II) grain-scale dissolution resulting from subaerial weathering rather than deformation by pressure-solution processes and (III) fault gouge geometries being more complex than expected for deeper counterparts.
The methodological approaches deployed in analyses of this, and other fault zones, and the major results of this study are finally discussed in order to contextualize slip zone investigations of fault zones and landslides. Like faults, landslides are major geohazards, which highlights the importance of characterising their geomechanical properties. Similarities between faults, especially those exposed to subaerial processes, and landslides, include mineralogical composition and geomechanical behaviour. Together, this ensures failure occurs predominantly by cataclastic processes, although aseismic creep promoted by weak phyllosilicates is not uncommon. Consequently, the multidisciplinary approach commonly used to investigate fault zones may contribute to increase the understanding of landslide faulting processes and the assessment of their hazard potential.
Geomorphology seeks to characterize the forms, rates, and magnitudes of sediment and water transport that sculpt landscapes. This is generally referred to as earth surface processes, which incorporates the influence of biologic (e.g., vegetation), climatic (e.g., rainfall), and tectonic (e.g., mountain uplift) factors in dictating the transport of water and eroded material. In mountains, high relief and steep slopes combine with strong gradients in rainfall and vegetation to create dynamic expressions of earth surface processes. This same rugged topography presents challenges in data collection and process measurement, where traditional techniques involving detailed observations or physical sampling are difficult to apply at the scale of entire catchments. Herein lies the utility of remote sensing. Remote sensing is defined as any measurement that does not disturb the natural environment, typically via acquisition of images in the visible- to radio-wavelength range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Remote sensing is an especially attractive option for measuring earth surface processes, because large areal measurements can be acquired at much lower cost and effort than traditional methods. These measurements cover not only topographic form, but also climatic and environmental metrics, which are all intertwined in the study of earth surface processes. This dissertation uses remote sensing data ranging from handheld camera-based photo surveying to spaceborne satellite observations to measure the expressions, rates, and magnitudes of earth surface processes in high-mountain catchments of the Eastern Central Andes in Northwest Argentina. This work probes the limits and caveats of remote sensing data and techniques applied to geomorphic research questions, and presents important progress at this disciplinary intersection.