90.00.00 GEOPHYSICS, ASTRONOMY, AND ASTROPHYSICS (for more detailed headings, see the Geophysics Appendix)
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Detection and Kirchhoff-type migration of seismic events by use of a new characteristic function
(2017)
The classical method of seismic event localization is based on the picking of body wave arrivals, ray tracing and inversion of travel time data. Travel time picks with small uncertainties are required to produce reliable and accurate results with this kind of source localization. Hence recordings, with a low Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) cannot be used in a travel time based inversion. Low SNR can be related with weak signals from distant and/or low magnitude sources as well as with a high level of ambient noise. Diffraction stacking is considered as an alternative seismic event localization method that enables also the processing of low SNR recordings by mean of stacking the amplitudes of seismograms along a travel time function. The location of seismic event and its origin time are determined based on the highest stacked amplitudes (coherency) of the image function. The method promotes an automatic processing since it does not need travel time picks as input data.
However, applying diffraction stacking may require longer computation times if only limited computer resources are used. Furthermore, a simple diffraction stacking of recorded amplitudes could possibly fail to locate the seismic sources if the focal mechanism leads to complex radiation patterns which typically holds for both natural and induced seismicity.
In my PhD project, I have developed a new work flow for the localization of seismic events which is based on a diffraction stacking approach. A parallelized code was implemented for the calculation of travel time tables and for the determination of an image function to reduce computation time. In order to address the effects from complex source radiation patterns, I also suggest to compute diffraction stacking from a characteristic function (CF) instead of stacking the original wave form data. A new CF, which is called in the following mAIC (modified from Akaike Information Criterion) is proposed. I demonstrate that, the performance of the mAIC does not depend on the chosen length of the analyzed time window and that both P- and S-wave onsets can be detected accurately. To avoid cross-talk between P- and S-waves due to inaccurate velocity models, I separate the P- and S-waves from the mAIC function by making use of polarization attributes. Then, eventually the final image function is represented by the largest eigenvalue as a result of the covariance analysis between P- and S-image functions. Before applying diffraction stacking, I also apply seismogram denoising by using Otsu thresholding in the time-frequency domain.
Results from synthetic experiments show that the proposed diffraction stacking provides reliable results even from seismograms with low SNR=1. Tests with different presentations of the synthetic seismograms (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) shown that, acceleration seismograms deliver better results in case of high SNR, whereas displacement seismograms provide more accurate results in case of low SNR recordings. In another test, different measures (maximum amplitude, other statistical parameters) were used to determine the source location in the final image function. I found that the statistical approach is the preferred method particularly for low SNR.
The work flow of my diffraction stacking method was finally applied to local earthquake data from Sumatra, Indonesia. Recordings from a temporary network of 42 stations deployed for 9 months around the Tarutung pull-apart Basin were analyzed. The seismic event locations resulting from the diffraction stacking method align along a segment of the Sumatran Fault. A more complex distribution of seismicity is imaged within and around the Tarutung Basin. Two lineaments striking N-S were found in the middle of the Tarutung Basin which support independent results from structural geology. These features are interpreted as opening fractures due to local extension. A cluster of seismic events repeatedly occurred in short time which might be related to fluid drainage since two hot springs are observed at the surface near to this cluster.
The Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) in the northwestern part of South Africa belongs to the few well-preserved remnants of Archean crust. Over the last centuries, the BGB has been intensively studied at surface with detailed mapping of its surfacial geological units and tectonic features. Nevertheless, the deeper structure of the BGB remains poorly understood. Various tectonic evolution models have been developed based on geo-chronological and structural data. These theories are highly controversial and centre on the question whether plate tectonics - as geoscientists understand them today - was already evolving on the Early Earth or whether vertical mass movements driven by the higher temperature of the Earth in Archean times governed continent development.
To get a step closer to answering the questions regarding the internal structure and formation of the BGB, magnetotelluric (MT) field experiments were conducted as part of the German-South African research initiative Inkaba yeAfrica. Five-component MT data (three magnetic and two electric channels) were collected at ~200 sites aligned along six profiles crossing the southern part of the BGB. Tectonic features like (fossil) faults and shear zones are often mineralized and therefore can have high electrical conductivities. Hence, by obtaining an image of the conductivity distribution of the subsurface from MT measurements can provide useful information on tectonic processes.
Unfortunately, the BGB MT data set is heavily affected by man-made electromagnetic noise caused, e.g. by powerlines and electric fences. Aperiodic spikes in the magnetic and corresponding offsets in the electric field components impair the data quality particularly at periods >1 s which are required to image deep electrical structures. Application of common methods for noise reduction like delay filtering and remote reference processing, only worked well for periods <1 s. Within the framework of this thesis two new filtering approaches were developed to handle the severe noise in long period data and obtain reliable processing results. The first algorithm is based on the Wiener filter in combination with a spike detection algorithm. Comparison of data variances of a local site with those of a reference site allows the identification of disturbed time series windows for each recorded channel at the local site. Using the data of the reference site, a Wiener filter algorithm is applied to predict physically meaningful data to replace the disturbed windows. While spikes in the magnetic channels are easily recognized and replaced, steps in the electric channels are more difficult to detect depending on their offset. Therefore, I have implemented a novel approach based on time series differentiation, noise removal and subsequent integration to overcome this obstacle. A second filtering approach where spikes and steps in the time series are identified using a comparison of the short and long time average of the data was also implemented as part of my thesis. For this filtering approach the noise in the form of spikes and offsets in the data is treated by an interpolation of the affected data samples. The new developments resulted in a substantial data improvement and allowed to gain one to two decades of data (up to 10 or 100 s).
The re-processed MT data were used to image the electrical conductivity distribution of the BGB by 2D and 3D inversion. Inversion models are in good agreement with the surface geology delineating the highly resistive rocks of the BGB from surrounding more conductive geological units. Fault zones appear as conductive structures and can be traced to depths of 5 to 10 km. 2D models suggest a continuation of the faults further south across the boundary of the BGB. Based on the shallow tectonic structures (fault system) within the BGB compared to deeply rooted resistive batholiths in the area, tectonic models including both vertical mass transport and in parts present-day style plate tectonics seem to be most likely for the evolution of the BGB.