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Monolithic perovskite silicon tandem solar cells can overcome the theoretical efficiency limit of silicon solar cells. This requires an optimum bandgap, high quantum efficiency, and high stability of the perovskite. Herein, a silicon heterojunction bottom cell is combined with a perovskite top cell, with an optimum bandgap of 1.68 eV in planar p-i-n tandem configuration. A methylammonium-free FA(0.75)Cs(0.25)Pb(I0.8Br0.2)(3) perovskite with high Cs content is investigated for improved stability. A 10% molarity increase to 1.1 m of the perovskite precursor solution results in approximate to 75 nm thicker absorber layers and 0.7 mA cm(-2) higher short-circuit current density. With the optimized absorber, tandem devices reach a high fill factor of 80% and up to 25.1% certified efficiency. The unencapsulated tandem device shows an efficiency improvement of 2.3% (absolute) over 5 months, showing the robustness of the absorber against degradation. Moreover, a photoluminescence quantum yield analysis reveals that with adapted charge transport materials and surface passivation, along with improved antireflection measures, the high bandgap perovskite absorber has the potential for 30% tandem efficiency in the near future.
Populärwissenschaftlicher Abstract: Bislang gibt es in der beobachtenden optischen Astronomie zwei verschiedene Herangehensweisen: Einerseits werden Objekte durch Kameras abbildend erfaßt, andererseits werden durch die wellenlängenabhängige Zerlegung ihres Lichtes Spektren gewonnen. Das Integral - Field - Verfahren ist eine relativ neue Technik, welche die genannten Beobachtungsmethoden vereint. Das Objektbild im Teleskopfokus wird in räumlich zerlegt und jedes Ortselement einem gemeinsamen Spektrografen zugeführt. Hierdurch wird das Objekt nicht nur zweidimensional räumlich erfaßt, sondern zusätzlich die spektrale Kompenente als dritte Dimension erhalten, weswegen das Verfahren auch als 3D-Methode bezeichnet wird. Anschaulich kann man sich das Datenresultat als eine Abbildung vorstellen, in der jeder einzelne Bildpunkt nicht mehr nur einen Intensitätswert enthält, sondern gleich ein ganzes Spektrum. Diese Technik ermöglicht es, ausgedehnte Objekte im Unterschied zu gängigen Spaltspektrografen komplett zu erfassen. Die besondere Stärke der Methode ist die Möglichkeit, die Hintergrundkontamination der unmittelbaren Umgebung des Objektes zu erfassen und in der Auswertung zu berücksichtigen. Durch diese Fähigkeit erscheint die 3D-Methode prädestiniert für den durch moderne Großteleskope erschlossenen Bereich der extragalaktischen Stellarastronomie. Die detaillierte Untersuchung aufgelöster stellare Populationen in nahegelegenen Galaxien ist erst seit kurzer Zeit dank der Fortschritte mit modernen Grossteleskopen und fortschrittlicher Instrumentierung möglich geworden. Wegen der Bedeutung für die Entstehung und Evolution von Galaxien werden diese Arbeiten zukünftig weiter an Bedeutung gewinnen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Integral-Field-Spektroskopie an zwei planetarischen Nebeln in der nächstgelegenen großen Spiralgalaxie M31 (NGC 224) getestet, deren Helligkeiten und Koordinaten aus einer Durchmusterung vorlagen. Hierzu wurden Beobachtungen mit dem MPFS-Instrument am russischen 6m - Teleskop in Selentschuk/Kaukasus sowie mit INTEGRAL/WYFFOS am englischen William-Herschel-Teleskop auf La Palma gewonnen. Ein überraschendes Ergebnis war, daß eins der beiden Objekte falsch klassifiziert wurde. Sowohl die meßbare räumliche Ausdehnung des Objektes als auch das spektrale Erscheinungsbild schlossen die Identität mit einem planetarischen Nebel aus. Mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit handelt es sich um einen Supernovaüberrest, zumal im Rahmen der Fehler an gleicher Stelle eine vom Röntgensatelliten ROSAT detektierte Röntgenquelle liegt. Die in diesem Projekt verwendeten Integral-Field-Instrumente wiesen zwei verschiedene Bauweisen auf, die sich miteinander vergleichen ließen. Ein Hauptkritikpunkt der verwendeten Instrumente war ihre geringe Lichtausbeute. Die gesammelten Erfahrung fanden Eingang in das Konzept des derzeit in Potsdam in der Fertigung befindlichen 3D-Instruments PMAS (Potsdamer Multi - Apertur - Spektrophotometer), welcher zunächst für das 3.5m-Teleskop des Calar - Alto - Observatoriums in Südspanien vorgesehen ist. Um die Effizienz dieses Instrumentes zu verbessern, wurde in dieser Arbeit die Kopplung der zum Bildrasterung verwendeten Optik zu den Lichtleitfasern im Labor untersucht. Die Untersuchungen zur Maximierung von Lichtausbeute und Stabilität zeigen, daß sich die Effizienz durch Auswahl einer geeigneten Koppelmethode um etwa 20 Prozent steigern lässt.
In this paper two groups supporting different views on the mechanism of light induced polymer deformation argue about the respective underlying theoretical conceptions, in order to bring this interesting debate to the attention of the scientific community. The group of Prof. Nicolae Hurduc supports the model claiming that the cyclic isomerization of azobenzenes may cause an athermal transition of the glassy azobenzene containing polymer into a fluid state, the so-called photo-fluidization concept. This concept is quite convenient for an intuitive understanding of the deformation process as an anisotropic flow of the polymer material. The group of Prof. Svetlana Santer supports the re-orientational model where the mass-transport of the polymer material accomplished during polymer deformation is stated to be generated by the light-induced re-orientation of the azobenzene side chains and as a consequence of the polymer backbone that in turn results in local mechanical stress, which is enough to irreversibly deform an azobenzene containing material even in the glassy state. For the debate we chose three polymers differing in the glass transition temperature, 32 °C, 87 °C and 95 °C, representing extreme cases of flexible and rigid materials. Polymer film deformation occurring during irradiation with different interference patterns is recorded using a homemade set-up combining an optical part for the generation of interference patterns and an atomic force microscope for acquiring the kinetics of film deformation. We also demonstrated the unique behaviour of azobenzene containing polymeric films to switch the topography in situ and reversibly by changing the irradiation conditions. We discuss the results of reversible deformation of three polymers induced by irradiation with intensity (IIP) and polarization (PIP) interference patterns, and the light of homogeneous intensity in terms of two approaches: the re-orientational and the photo-fluidization concepts. Both agree in that the formation of opto-mechanically induced stresses is a necessary prerequisite for the process of deformation. Using this argument, the deformation process can be characterized either as a flow or mass transport.
Dark matter, DM, has not yet been directly observed, but it has a very solid theoretical basis. There are observations that provide indirect evidence, like galactic rotation curves that show that the galaxies are rotating too fast to keep their constituent parts, and galaxy clusters that bends the light coming from behind-lying galaxies more than expected with respect to the mass that can be calculated from what can be visibly seen. These observations, among many others, can be explained with theories that include DM. The missing piece is to detect something that can exclusively be explained by DM. Direct observation in a particle accelerator is one way and indirect detection using telescopes is another. This thesis is focused on the latter method.
The Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System, V ERITAS, is a telescope array that detects Cherenkov radiation. Theory predicts that DM particles annihilate into, e.g., a γγ pair and create a distinctive energy spectrum when detected by such telescopes, e.i., a monoenergetic line at the same energy as the particle mass. This so called ”smoking-gun” signature is sought with a sliding window line search within the sub-range ∼ 0.3 − 10 TeV of the VERITAS energy range, ∼ 0.01 − 30 TeV.
Standard analysis within the VERITAS collaboration uses Hillas analysis and look-up tables, acquired by analysing particle simulations, to calculate the energy of the particle causing the Cherenkov shower. In this thesis, an improved analysis method has been used. Modelling each shower as a 3Dgaussian should increase the energy recreation quality. Five dwarf spheroidal galaxies were chosen as targets with a total of ∼ 224 hours of data. The targets were analysed individually and stacked. Particle simulations were based on two simulation packages, CARE and GrISU.
Improvements have been made to the energy resolution and bias correction, up to a few percent each, in comparison to standard analysis. Nevertheless, no line with a relevant significance has been detected. The most promising line is at an energy of ∼ 422 GeV with an upper limit cross section of 8.10 · 10^−24 cm^3 s^−1 and a significance of ∼ 2.73 σ, before trials correction and ∼ 1.56 σ after. Upper limit cross sections have also been calculated for the γγ annihilation process and four other outcomes. The limits are in line with current limits using other methods, from ∼ 8.56 · 10^−26 − 6.61 · 10^−23 cm^3s^−1. Future larger telescope arrays, like the upcoming Cherenkov Telescope Array, CTA, will provide better results with the help of this analysis method.
In the context of cosmological structure formation sheets, filaments and eventually halos form due to gravitational instabilities. It is noteworthy, that at all times, the majority of the baryons in the universe does not reside in the dense halos but in the filaments and the sheets of the intergalactic medium. While at higher redshifts of z > 2, these baryons can be detected via the absorption of light (originating from more distant sources) by neutral hydrogen at temperatures of T ~ 10^4 K (the Lyman-alpha forest), at lower redshifts only about 20 % can be found in this state. The remain (about 50 to 70 % of the total baryons mass) is unaccounted for by observational means. Numerical simulations predict that these missing baryons could reside in the filaments and sheets of the cosmic web at high temperatures of T = 10^4.5 - 10^7 K, but only at low to intermediate densities, and constitutes the warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). The high temperatures of the WHIM are caused by the formation of shocks and the subsequent shock-heating of the gas. This results in a high degree of ionization and renders the reliable detection of the WHIM a challenging task. Recent high-resolution hydrodynamical simulations indicate that, at redshifts of z ~ 2, filaments are able to provide very massive galaxies with a significant amount of cool gas at temperatures of T ~ 10^4 K. This could have an important impact on the star-formation in those galaxies. It is therefore of principle importance to investigate the particular hydro- and thermodynamical conditions of these large filament structures. Density and temperature profiles, and velocity fields, are expected to leave their special imprint on spectroscopic observations. A potential multiphase structure may act as tracer in observational studies of the WHIM. In the context of cold streams, it is important to explore the processes, which regulate the amount of gas transported by the streams. This includes the time evolution of filaments, as well as possible quenching mechanisms. In this context, the halo mass range in which cold stream accretion occurs is of particular interest. In order to address these questions, we perform particular hydrodynamical simulations of very high resolution, and investigate the formation and evolution of prototype structures representing the typical filaments and sheets of the WHIM. We start with a comprehensive study of the one-dimensional collapse of a sinusoidal density perturbation (pancake formation) and examine the influence of radiative cooling, heating due to an UV background, thermal conduction, and the effect of small-scale perturbations given by the cosmological power spectrum. We use a set of simulations, parametrized by the wave length of the initial perturbation L. For L ~ 2 Mpc/h the collapse leads to shock-confined structures. As a result of radiative cooling and of heating due to an UV background, a relatively cold and dense core forms. With increasing L the core becomes denser and more concentrated. Thermal conduction enhances this trend and may lead to an evaporation of the core at very large L ~ 30 Mpc/h. When extending our simulations into three dimensions, instead of a pancake structure, we obtain a configuration consisting of well-defined sheets, filaments, and a gaseous halo. For L > 4 Mpc/h filaments form, which are fully confined by an accretion shock. As with the one-dimensional pancakes, they exhibit an isothermal core. Thus, our results confirm a multiphase structure, which may generate particular spectral tracers. We find that, after its formation, the core becomes shielded against further infall of gas onto the filament, and its mass content decreases with time. In the vicinity of the halo, the filament's core can be attributed to the cold streams found in other studies. We show, that the basic structure of these cold streams exists from the very beginning of the collapse process. Further on, the cross section of the streams is constricted by the outwards moving accretion shock of the halo. Thermal conduction leads to a complete evaporation of the cold stream for L > 6 Mpc/h. This corresponds to halos with a total mass higher than M_halo = 10^13 M_sun, and predicts that in more massive halos star-formation can not be sustained by cold streams. Far away from the gaseous halo, the temperature gradients in the filament are not sufficiently strong for thermal conduction to be effective.
This work reviews the literature on an alleged global warming 'pause' in global mean surface temperature (GMST) to determine how it has been defined, what time intervals are used to characterise it, what data are used to measure it, and what methods used to assess it. We test for 'pauses', both in the normally understood meaning of the term to mean no warming trend, as well as for a 'pause' defined as a substantially slower trend in GMST. The tests are carried out with the historical versions of GMST that existed for each pause-interval tested, and with current versions of each of the GMST datasets. The tests are conducted following the common (but questionable) practice of breaking the linear fit at the start of the trend interval ('broken' trends), and also with trends that are continuous with the data bordering the trend interval. We also compare results when appropriate allowance is made for the selection bias problem. The results show that there is little or no statistical evidence for a lack of trend or slower trend in GMST using either the historical data or the current data. The perception that there was a 'pause' in GMST was bolstered by earlier biases in the data in combination with incomplete statistical testing.
We consider a sequential cascade of molecular first-reaction events towards a terminal reaction centre in which each reaction step is controlled by diffusive motion of the particles. The model studied here represents a typical reaction setting encountered in diverse molecular biology systems, in which, e.g. a signal transduction proceeds via a series of consecutive 'messengers': the first messenger has to find its respective immobile target site triggering a launch of the second messenger, the second messenger seeks its own target site and provokes a launch of the third messenger and so on, resembling a relay race in human competitions. For such a molecular relay race taking place in infinite one-, two- and three-dimensional systems, we find exact expressions for the probability density function of the time instant of the terminal reaction event, conditioned on preceding successful reaction events on an ordered array of target sites. The obtained expressions pertain to the most general conditions: number of intermediate stages and the corresponding diffusion coefficients, the sizes of the target sites, the distances between them, as well as their reactivities are arbitrary.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) in terms of laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF) offers new prospects regarding the design of parts and enables therefore the production of lattice structures. These lattice structures shall be implemented in various industrial applications (e.g. gas turbines) for reasons of material savings or cooling channels. However, internal defects, residual stress, and structural deviations from the nominal geometry are unavoidable.
In this work, the structural integrity of lattice structures manufactured by means of L-PBF was non-destructively investigated on a multiscale approach.
A workflow for quantitative 3D powder analysis in terms of particle size, particle shape, particle porosity, inter-particle distance and packing density was established. Synchrotron computed tomography (CT) was used to correlate the packing density with the particle size and particle shape. It was also observed that at least about 50% of the powder porosity was released during production of the struts.
Struts are the component of lattice structures and were investigated by means of laboratory CT. The focus was on the influence of the build angle on part porosity and surface quality. The surface topography analysis was advanced by the quantitative characterisation of re-entrant surface features. This characterisation was compared with conventional surface parameters showing their complementary information, but also the need for AM specific surface parameters.
The mechanical behaviour of the lattice structure was investigated with in-situ CT under compression and successive digital volume correlation (DVC). The deformation was found to be knot-dominated, and therefore the lattice folds unit cell layer wise.
The residual stress was determined experimentally for the first time in such lattice structures. Neutron diffraction was used for the non-destructive 3D stress investigation. The principal stress directions and values were determined in dependence of the number of measured directions. While a significant uni-axial stress state was found in the strut, a more hydrostatic stress state was found in the knot. In both cases, strut and knot, seven directions were at least needed to find reliable principal stress directions.
Compared to their inorganic counterparts, organic semiconductors suffer from relatively low charge carrier mobilities. Therefore, expressions derived for inorganic solar cells to correlate characteristic performance parameters to material properties are prone to fail when applied to organic devices. This is especially true for the classical Shockley-equation commonly used to describe current-voltage (JV)-curves, as it assumes a high electrical conductivity of the charge transporting material. Here, an analytical expression for the JV-curves of organic solar cells is derived based on a previously published analytical model. This expression, bearing a similar functional dependence as the Shockley-equation, delivers a new figure of merit α to express the balance between free charge recombination and extraction in low mobility photoactive materials. This figure of merit is shown to determine critical device parameters such as the apparent series resistance and the fill factor.
This thesis is focused on the electronic, spin-dependent and dynamical properties of thin magnetic systems. Photoemission-related techniques are combined with synchrotron radiation to study the spin-dependent properties of these systems in the energy and time domains. In the first part of this thesis, the strength of electron correlation effects in the spin-dependent electronic structure of ferromagnetic bcc Fe(110) and hcp Co(0001) is investigated by means of spin- and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. The experimental results are compared to theoretical calculations within the three-body scattering approximation and within the dynamical mean-field theory, together with one-step model calculations of the photoemission process. From this comparison it is demonstrated that the present state of the art many-body calculations, although improving the description of correlation effects in Fe and Co, give too small mass renormalizations and scattering rates thus demanding more refined many-body theories including nonlocal fluctuations. In the second part, it is shown in detail monitoring by photoelectron spectroscopy how graphene can be grown by chemical vapour deposition on the transition-metal surfaces Ni(111) and Co(0001) and intercalated by a monoatomic layer of Au. For both systems, a linear E(k) dispersion of massless Dirac fermions is observed in the graphene pi-band in the vicinity of the Fermi energy. Spin-resolved photoemission from the graphene pi-band shows that the ferromagnetic polarization of graphene/Ni(111) and graphene/Co(0001) is negligible and that graphene on Ni(111) is after intercalation of Au spin-orbit split by the Rashba effect. In the last part, a time-resolved x-ray magnetic circular dichroic-photoelectron emission microscopy study of a permalloy platelet comprising three cross-tie domain walls is presented. It is shown how a fast picosecond magnetic response in the precessional motion of the magnetization can be induced by means of a laser-excited photoswitch. From a comparision to micromagnetic calculations it is demonstrated that the relatively high precessional frequency observed in the experiments is directly linked to the nature of the vortex/antivortex dynamics and its response to the magnetic perturbation. This includes the time-dependent reversal of the vortex core polarization, a process which is beyond the limit of detection in the present experiments.