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Ground-penetrating radar is widely used to provide highly resolved images of subsurface sedimentary structures, with implications for processes active in the vadose zone. Frequently overlooked among these structures are tunnels excavated by fossorial animals (e.g., moles). We present two repeated ground-penetrating radar surveys performed a year apart in 2016 and 2017. Careful three-dimensional data processing reveals, in each data set, a pattern of elongated structures that are interpreted as a subsurface mole tunnel network. Our data demonstrate the ability of three-dimensional ground-penetrating radar imaging to non-invasively delineate the small animal tunnels (similar to 5 cm diameter) at a higher spatial and geolocation resolution than has previously been achieved. In turn, this makes repeated surveys and, therefore, long-term monitoring possible. Our results offer valuable insight into the understanding of the near-surface and showcase a potential new application for a geophysical method as well as a non-invasive method of ecological surveying.
Mountain ecosystems are commonly regarded as being highly sensitive to global change. Due to the system complexity and multifaceted interacting drivers, however, understanding current responses and predicting future changes in these ecosystems is extremely difficult. We aim to discuss potential effects of global change on mountain ecosystems and give examples of the underlying response mechanisms as they are understood at present. Based on the development of scientific global change research in mountains and its recent structures, we identify future research needs, highlighting the major lack and the importance of integrated studies that implement multi-factor, multi-method, multi-scale, and interdisciplinary research.