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Quantum dots increasingly gain popularity for in vivo applications. However, their delivery and accumulation into cells can be challenging and there is still lack of detailed information. Thereby, the application of advanced fluorescence techniques can expand the portfolio of useful parameters for a more comprehensive evaluation. Here, we encapsulated hydrophilic quantum dots into liposomes for studying cellular uptake of these so-called lipodots into living cells. First, we investigated photophysical properties of free quantum dots and lipodots observing changes in the fluorescence decay time and translational diffusion behaviour. In comparison to empty liposomes, lipodots exhibited an altered zeta potential, whereas their hydrodynamic size did not change. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), both combined with two-photon excitation (2P), were used to investigate the interaction behaviour of lipodots with an insect epithelial tissue. In contrast to the application of free quantum dots, their successful delivery into the cytosol of salivary gland duct cells could be observed when applying lipodots. Lipodots with different lipid compositions and surface charges did not result in considerable differences in the intracellular labelling pattern, luminescence decay time and diffusion behaviour. However, quantum dot degradation after intracellular accumulation could be assumed from reduced luminescence decay times and blue-shifted luminescence signals. In addition to single diffusing quantum dots, possible intracellular clustering of quantum dots could be assumed from increased diffusion times. Thus, by using a simple and manageable liposome carrier system, 2P-FLIM and 2P-FCS recording protocols could be tested, which are promising for investigating the fate of quantum dots during cellular interaction.
Protein interaction and protein imaging strongly benefit from the advancements in time-resolved and superresolution fluorescence microscopic techniques. However, the techniques were typically applied separately and ex vivo because of technical challenges and the absence of suitable fluorescent protein pairs. Here, we show correlative in vivo fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy Forster resonance energy transfer (FLIM-FRET) and stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy to unravel protein mechanics and structure in living cells. We use magnetotactic bacteria as a model system where two proteins, MamJ and MamK, are used to assemble magnetic particles called magnetosomes. The filament polymerizes out of MamK and the magnetosomes are connected via the linker MamJ. Our system reveals that bacterial filamentous structures are more fragile than the connection of biomineralized particles to this filament. More importantly, we anticipate the technique to find wide applicability for the study and quantification of biological processes in living cells and at high resolution.
Charakterisierung von Transportmechanismen in der Speicheldrüse der Schabe Periplaneta americana
(2006)
Die Aktivierung der Speichelsekretion erfolgt in der innervierten Speicheldrüse der Schabe Periplaneta americana durch die biogenen Amine Dopamin (DA) und Serotonin (5-HT). Die Acini der Speicheldrüse sezernieren einen Primärspeichel, der in den Ausführgängen modifiziert wird. Die durch DA und 5-HT aktivierten Signalwege sowie die an der Elektrolyt- und Flüssigkeitssekretion bzw. Speichel-modifikation beteiligten Transportmechanismen sind weitgehend unbekannt. Mikrofluorometrische Ca<sup>2+-, Na<sup>+- und pH-Messungen in Kombination mit pharmakologischen Experimenten, biochemische Messungen der Aktivitäten von Ionentransport-ATPasen sowie videomikroskopische Analysen zu transepithelialen Wasserbewegungen wurden in dieser Arbeit durchgeführt. Sie sollten Informationen über die an der Speichelbildung und -modifikation beteiligten Transportmechanismen und die Signalwege liefern, welche durch DA und/oder 5-HT aktiviert werden. Wesentliche Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit waren: <ul> <li>Messungen des intrazellulären pH (pHi) in Gangzellen zeigten, dass isolierte Ausführgänge mit Acini bei Stimulierung mit DA und 5-HT stark ansäuerten. In isolierten Ausführgängen ohne Acini verursachte nur DA eine schwache Ansäuerung. Da nur die Ausführgänge dopaminerg innerviert sind, die Acini jedoch dopaminerg und serotonerg, zeigt dieses Ergebnis, dass die DA- und/oder 5-HT-induzierte Primärspeichelbildung die Ursache für die pHi-Änderungen in den Gangzellen ist. pHi-Messungen in den Gangzellen geben also auch Hinweise auf Transportvorgänge in den Acini.</li> <li> Der Na<sup>+-K<sup>+-2Cl<sup>--Symporter und der Cl<sup>--HCO3<sup>--Antiporter, gekoppelt mit dem Na<sup>+ H<sup>+-Antiporter (NHE) waren an der NaCl-Aufnahme in die peripheren Zellen der Acini zur Bildung des NaCl-reichen Primärspeichels beteiligt. Die Aktivität dieser Transporter hing von der CO2/HCO3<sup>--Verfügbarkeit ab und war Ca<sup>2+-abhängig.</li> <li>Die starke Ansäuerung in den Gangzellen hing nicht von der Aktivität der apikalen vakuolären Protonen-ATPase (V-H<sup>+-ATPase), aber von der Aktivität der basolateralen Na<sup>+-K<sup>+-ATPase ab, die anscheinend in den Ausführgängen die Speichelmodifikation energetisiert.</li> <li>In isolierten Ausführgängen mit Acini waren die V-H<sup>+-ATPase und Na<sup>+-abhängige Transporter (u. a. NHE) an der Erholung von einer DA-induzierten oder einer NH4Cl-Vorpuls-induzierten Ansäuerung in den Gangzellen beteiligt. Bei der Regulation des pHi in unstimulierten Gangzellen spielten diese Transporter keine Rolle.</li> <li>In isolierten Ausführgängen mit Acini induzierte DA in den Gangzellen einen Anstieg der [Na<sup>+]i und, zeitlich verzögert, auch der [Ca<sup>2+]i. Der [Na<sup>+]i-Anstieg war von der Aktivität der Acini abhängig und erfolgte möglicherweise über apikale Na+-Kanäle. Der [Ca<sup>2+]i-Anstieg war graduiert und tonisch. Der DA-induzierte [Na<sup>+]i-Anstieg in den Gangzellen und deren Depolarisation führten dazu, dass der basolaterale Na<sup>+-Ca<sup>2+-Antiporter in den Ca<sup>2+-Influx-Modus umkehrte. Die daraus resultierende tonische [Ca<sup>2+]i-Erhöhung könnte an der Regulation der Na<sup>+-Rückresorption beteiligt sein.</li> <li>Zum Nachweis transepithelialer Flüssigkeitsbewegungen in isolierten Ausführgängen wurde eine videomikroskopische Methode entwickelt. Isolierte Ausführgänge ohne Acini resorbierten im unstimulierten Zustand Flüssigkeit aus dem Ausführganglumen. Möglicherweise sezernieren die Acini auch im unstimulierten Zustand mit geringerer Rate einen Primärspeichel, der in den Ausführgängen resorbiert wird. Die Resorption war ATP-abhängig. Der ATP-verbrauchende Transportmechanismus konnte nicht identifiziert werden. Weder die Na<sup>+-K<sup>+-ATPase noch die V-H<sup>+-ATPase waren an der Resorption beteiligt.</li> </ul> Diese Arbeit trug zur Kenntnis der komplexen Funktionsweise von Speicheldrüsen in Insekten bei und erweiterte das lückenhafte Wissen über die zellulären Wirkungen biogener Amine in Insekten. Zudem wurden in dieser Arbeit viele Parallelen zu Funktionsweisen der Speicheldrüsen in Vertebraten deutlich.
pH sensing in living cells represents one of the most prominent topics in biochemistry and physiology. In this study we performed one-photon and two-photon time-domain fluorescence lifetime imaging with a laser-scanning microscope using the time-correlated single-photon counting technique for imaging intracellular pH levels. The suitability of different commercial fluorescence dyes for lifetime-based pH sensing is discussed on the basis of in vitro as well of in situ measurements. Although the tested dyes are suitable for intensity-based ratiometric measurements, for lifetime- based techniques in the time-domain so far only BCECF seems to meet the requirements of reliable intracellular pH recordings in living cells.
Two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging of intracellular chloride in cockroach salivary glands
(2009)
Stimulation with the neurotransmitter dopamine causes an amplitude-modulated increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+](i)) in epithelial cells of the ducts of cockroach salivary glands. This is completely attributable to a Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space. Additionally, dopamine induces a massive [Na+](i) elevation via the Na+- K+-2Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC). We have reasoned that Ca2+-entry is mediated by the Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCE) operating in the Ca2+-entry mode. To test this hypothesis, [Ca2+](i) and [Na+](i) were measured by using the fluorescent dyes Fura- 2, Fluo-3, and SBFI. Inhibition of Na+-entry from the extracellular space by removal of extracellular Na+ or inhibition of the NKCC by 10 mu M bumetanide did not influence resting [Ca2+]i but completely abolished the dopamine-induced [Ca2+](i) elevation. Simultaneous recordings of [Ca2+](i) and [Na+](i) revealed that the dopamine-induced [Na+](i) elevation preceded the [Ca2+](i) elevation. During dopamine stimulation, the generation of an outward Na+ concentration gradient by removal of extracellular Na+ boosted the [Ca2+](i) elevation. Furthermore, prolonging the dopamine-induced [Na+](i) rise by blocking the Na+/K+-ATPase reduced the recovery from [Ca2+](i) elevation. These results indicate that dopamine induces a massive NKCC-mediated elevation in [Na+](i), which reverses the NCE activity into the reverse mode causing a graded [Ca2+](i) elevation in the duct cells.
In living cells, there are always a plethora of processes taking place at the same time. Their precise regulation is the basis of cellular functions, since small failures can lead to severe dysfunctions. For a comprehensive understanding of intracellular homeostasis, simultaneous multiparameter detection is a versatile tool for revealing the spatial and temporal interactions of intracellular parameters. Here, a recently developed time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) board was evaluated for simultaneous fluorescence and phosphorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM/PLIM). Therefore, the metabolic activity in insect salivary glands was investigated by recording ns-decaying intrinsic cellular fluorescence, mainly related to oxidized flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and the mu s-decaying phosphorescence of the oxygen-sensitive ruthenium-complex Kr341. Due to dopamine stimulation, the metabolic activity of salivary glands increased, causing a higher pericellular oxygen consumption and a resulting increase in Kr341 phosphorescence decay time. Furthermore, FAD fluorescence decay time decreased, presumably due to protein binding, thus inducing a quenching of FAD fluorescence decay time. Through application of the metabolic drugs antimycin and FCCP, the recorded signals could be assigned to a mitochondrial origin. The dopamine-induced changes could be observed in sequential FLIM and PLIM recordings, as well as in simultaneous FLIM/PLIM recordings using an intermediate TCSPC timing resolution.
In living cells, there are always a plethora of processes taking place at the same time. Their precise regulation is the basis of cellular functions, since small failures can lead to severe dysfunctions. For a comprehensive understanding of intracellular homeostasis, simultaneous multiparameter detection is a versatile tool for revealing the spatial and temporal interactions of intracellular parameters. Here, a recently developed time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) board was evaluated for simultaneous fluorescence and phosphorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM/PLIM). Therefore, the metabolic activity in insect salivary glands was investigated by recording ns-decaying intrinsic cellular fluorescence, mainly related to oxidized flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and the μs-decaying phosphorescence of the oxygen-sensitive ruthenium-complex Kr341. Due to dopamine stimulation, the metabolic activity of salivary glands increased, causing a higher pericellular oxygen consumption and a resulting increase in Kr341 phosphorescence decay time. Furthermore, FAD fluorescence decay time decreased, presumably due to protein binding, thus inducing a quenching of FAD fluorescence decay time. Through application of the metabolic drugs antimycin and FCCP, the recorded signals could be assigned to a mitochondrial origin. The dopamine-induced changes could be observed in sequential FLIM and PLIM recordings, as well as in simultaneous FLIM/PLIM recordings using an intermediate TCSPC timing resolution.
In living cells, there are always a plethora of processes taking place at the same time. Their precise regulation is the basis of cellular functions, since small failures can lead to severe dysfunctions. For a comprehensive understanding of intracellular homeostasis, simultaneous multiparameter detection is a versatile tool for revealing the spatial and temporal interactions of intracellular parameters. Here, a recently developed time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) board was evaluated for simultaneous fluorescence and phosphorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM/PLIM). Therefore, the metabolic activity in insect salivary glands was investigated by recording ns-decaying intrinsic cellular fluorescence, mainly related to oxidized flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and the μs-decaying phosphorescence of the oxygen-sensitive ruthenium-complex Kr341. Due to dopamine stimulation, the metabolic activity of salivary glands increased, causing a higher pericellular oxygen consumption and a resulting increase in Kr341 phosphorescence decay time. Furthermore, FAD fluorescence decay time decreased, presumably due to protein binding, thus inducing a quenching of FAD fluorescence decay time. Through application of the metabolic drugs antimycin and FCCP, the recorded signals could be assigned to a mitochondrial origin. The dopamine-induced changes could be observed in sequential FLIM and PLIM recordings, as well as in simultaneous FLIM/PLIM recordings using an intermediate TCSPC timing resolution.
For a comprehensive understanding of cellular processes and potential dysfunctions therein, an analysis of the ubiquitous intracellular second messenger calcium is of particular interest. This study examined the suitability of the novel Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dyes Asante Calcium Red (ACR) and Asante Calcium Green (ACG) for two-photon (2P)-excited time-resolved fluorescence measurements. Both dyes displayed sufficient 2P fluorescence excitation in a range of 720-900 nm. In vitro, ACR and ACG exhibited a biexponential fluorescence decay behavior and the two decay time components in the ns-range could be attributed to the Ca2+-free and Ca2+-bound dye species. The amplitude-weighted average fluorescence decay time changed in a Ca2+-dependent way, unraveling in vitro dissociation constants K-D of 114 nM and 15 nM for ACR and ACG, respectively. In the presence of bovine serum albumin, the absorption and steady-state fluorescence behavior of ACR was altered and its biexponential fluorescence decay showed about 5-times longer decay time components indicating dye-protein interactions. Since no ester derivative of ACG was commercially available, only ACR was evaluated for 2P-excited fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2P-FLIM) in living cells of American cockroach salivary glands. In living cells, ACR also exhibited a biexponential fluorescence decay with clearly resolvable short (0.56 ns) and long (2.44 ns) decay time components attributable to the Ca2+-free and Ca2+-bound ACR species. From the amplitude-weighted average fluorescence decay times, an in situ K-D of 180 nM was determined. Thus, quantitative [Ca2+](i) recordings were realized, unraveling a reversible dopamine-induced [Ca2+](i) elevation from 21 nM to 590 nM in salivary duct cells. It was concluded that ACR is a promising new Ca2+ indicator dye for 2P-FLIM recordings applicable in diverse biological systems.