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We present an integrated model for the understanding of and the reasoning from conditional statements. Central assumptions from several approaches are integrated into a causal path model. According to the model, the cognitive availability of exceptions to a conditional reduces the subjective conditional probability of the consequent, given the antecedent. This conditional probability determines people's degree of belief in the conditional, which in turn affects their willingness to accept logically valid inferences. In addition to this indirect pathway, the model contains a direct pathway: Availability of exceptional situations directly reduces the endorsement of valid inferences. We tested the integrated model with three experiments using conditional statements embedded in pseudonaturalistic cover stories. An explicitly mentioned causal link between antecedent and consequent was either present (causal conditionals) or absent (arbitrary conditionals). The model was supported for the causal but not for the arbitrary conditional statements
Obesity is associated with psychosocial strain and a lower quality of life. Health-related quality of life is an important indicator for evaluating intervention treatments. However, German disease-specific quality of life instruments are lacking. In this paper the development and psychometric results of a weight-specific quality of life questionnaire for overweight and obese children and adolescents (GQ-LQ-KJ) is described. To determine the psychometric properties of the instrument 448 children and adolescents treated for over-weight or obesity took part in the study. They filled in the quality of life questionnaire, the German version of the STAI for children, a body image avoidance questionnaire (BIAQ) and several subscales of a generic quality of life questionnaire, the Child Health Questionnaire (CHQ). Results support the item and scale properties. Furthermore we were able to form two economic parallel versions suitable for further intervention studies
Asthma bronchiale
(2005)
Verhaltenstherapie
(2005)
The unhappy obese child
(2005)
OBJECTIVE: One of the most painful aspects of obesity may be the emotional suffering it causes. The paper discusses the psychological and social effects of obesity. METHOD: Current studies examining the psychosocial strains of obese children and adolescents are reported. The report especially focuses on stigmatization, mental health disorders, school performance and health-related quality of life. DISCUSSION: Research is showing that obesity is associated with poorer psychosocial functioning-even compared with other chronic diseases. Future studies should further explicate the risk and protective factors for developing severe psychosocial strain
As meta-analyses demonstrate feedback effects on performance, our study examined possible mediators. Based on our cognitive-motivational model [Vollmeyer, R., & Rhemberg, F. (1998). Motivationale Einflusse auf Erwerb und Anwendung von Wissen in einem computersimulierten System [Motivational influences on the acquisition and application of knowledge in a simulated system]. Zeitschrift fur Padagogische Psychologie, 12, 11-23] we examined how feedback changed (1) strategies, and (2) motivation during learning, and by doing so improved (3) final performance. Students (N = 211) learned how a dynamic system works and how to reach given goal states for the system. One group received feedback (i.e., knowledge of performance) the other one did not. We expected learners to improve after they received the first feedback. However, we found that learners expecting feedback used better strategies right from the start. Thus, they acquired more knowledge over fewer trials. Although we had also expected effects of feedback on motivation during learning, we could not support this hypothesis. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
Bimanual parity judgments of numerically small (large) digits are faster with the left (right) hand (the SNARC effect; Dehaene, Bossini, & Giraux, 1993). According to one explanation, this effect is culturally derived and reflects ontogenetic influences such as the direction of written language; it might therefore be limited to, or at least be larger with, pairs of lateralized effectors which are instrumental to the production and comprehension of written language. We report two experiments which test for SNARC effects with pedal responses, and compare these effects to manual results. Pedal responses yielded highly systematic SNARC effects; furthermore, these effects did not differ from manual SNARC effects, These results argue against accounts in which the SNARC effect is specific for effectors that are habitually associated with the production or comprehension of written language
Farewell from Friedhart Klix
(2005)
Fixational eye movements occur involuntarily during visual fixation of stationary scenes. The fastest components of these miniature eye movements are microsaccades, which can be observed about once per second. Recent studies demonstrated that microsaccades are linked to covert shifts of visual attention. Here, we generalized this finding in two ways. First, we used peripheral cues, rather than the centrally presented cues of earlier studies. Second, we spatially cued attention in vision and audition to visual and auditory targets. An analysis of microsaccade responses revealed an equivalent impact of visual and auditory cues on microsaccade-rate signature (i.e. an initial inhibition followed by an overshoot and a final return to the pre-cue baseline rate). With visual cues or visual targets, microsaccades were briefly aligned with cue direction and then opposite to cue direction during the overshoot epoch, probably as a result of an inhibition of an automatic saccade to the peripheral cue. With left auditory cues and auditory targets microsaccades oriented in cue direction. We argue that microsaccades can be used to study crossmodal integration of sensory information and to map the time course of saccade preparation during covert shifts of visual and auditory attention
Ziel des Projekts war die Verbesserung des Verständnisses des Flow-Phänomens. Mit einer Flow-Erhebung unter Alltagsbedingungen(ESM-Studie) und Experimenten mit Computerspielen sollten Auftretensbedingungen und Korrelate von Flow sowie der Einfluss verschiedener Person- und Situationsmerkmale geklärt werden. Die Durchführung des Projektes konnte fast vollständig wie im Projektantrag formuliert realisiert werden. <b>Flow unter Alltagsbedingungen (ESM-Studie)</b> Wie erwartet ließ sich Flow-Erleben unter Alltagsbedingungen mit der Flow-Kurzskala (FKS) ökonomisch und reliabel erfassen. Es zeigte sich, dass Flow während der Arbeitszeit stärker auftritt als in der Freizeit. Trotzdem fühlten sich die Teilnehmer in der Freizeit glücklicher als während der Arbeit (Replikation des „Paradoxons der Arbeit“ mit adäquater Methode). Dabei scheint die Zielausrichtung laufender Aktivitäten eine Schlüsselrolle zu spielen. Sie wirkt sich auf Flow förderlich aus, auf Glück/Zufriedenheit aber eher dämpfend. Da nun Arbeitsaktivitäten häufiger zielgerichtet sind als Freizeitaktivitäten, ließ sich das „Paradoxon der Arbeit“ zu einem erheblichen Teil auf die Zielausrichtung zurückführen. Die Tätigkeiten, die zu den einzelnen Messzeitpunkt von den Untersuchungsteilnehmern angegeben wurden, unterscheiden sich deutlich in dem Ausmaß, in dem bei ihrer Ausübung Flow-Erleben auftritt. Dabei sind hohe Flow-Werte sowohl bei Arbeits-, als auch bei Freizeitaktivitäten möglich. Außerdem unterscheiden sich die angegebenen Tätigkeiten darin, wie sehr Flow in ihrem Vollzug von Glücksgefühlen begleitet ist („Glückspotential“ von Flow bei verschiedenen Aktivitäten). Eine der Bedingungen für Flow-Erleben ist die optimale Beanspruchung. Sie ergibt sich aus der Passung bzw. Balance zwischen Fähigkeit und Anforderung. Flow-Erleben war dann am höchsten, wenn Anforderungen und Fähigkeiten in Balance waren. Allerdings war der Passungseffekt viel zu schwach, als dass man allein über die Passung das Vorliegen von Flow diagnostizieren sollte. Zudem wirkte sich die Passung von Fähigkeit und Anforderung in Kombination mit der Zielausrichtung verschieden stark auf das Flow-Erleben von Erfolgszuversichtlichen vs. misserfolgsängstlichen Teilnehmern aus. Mit Blick auf den Zusammenhang zwischen Personmerkmalen und Flow interessierte uns der Einfluss der Motive auf Flow. In der Gesamtstichprobe wurde Flow während der Arbeit überraschenderweise am ehesten über das Anschlussmotiv des Teilnehmers vorhergesagt. Die Varianzaufklärung ist mit 8,3% aber eher mäßig. Betrachtet man bestimmte Berufsgruppen dieser Stichprobe getrennt, so gilt dieser Befund in verstärktem Maße für die Gruppe der Sekretärinnen/ SachbearbeiterInnen (12 % Varianzaufklärung). In der Berufsgruppe der Professoren/Leitern/Wiss. Mitarbeitern war Flow dagegen sehr deutlich über das Leistungsmotiv der Teilnehmer vorhersagbar (41 % Varianzaufklärung), während das Anschlussmotiv hier keine Rolle spielt. Außerdem suchten wir eine Klärung des Einflusses der motivationalen Kompetenz, also der Übereinstimmung von impliziten Motiven und motivationalen Selbstbildern auf Flow. Flow-Effekte der motivationalen Kompetenz zeigten sich lediglich beim (erfolgszuversichtlichen) Leistungsmotiv – nicht jedoch bei anderen Motiven. Dies gilt insbesondere, wenn sich (a) die Untersuchungsteilnehmer in Leistungssituationen befinden sowie (b) zur Gruppe der Professoren, Leitern und Wissenschaftlern gehören. Glücks- und Zufriedenheitserlebnisse (PANAVA) im Alltag lassen sich über das Anschlussmotiv aber nicht über das Leistungsmotiv einer Person vorhersagen. Das Leistungsmotiv sagt dagegen die Aktivierung (PANAVA) im Alltag vorher allerdings sowohl in positiver (PA) als auch in negativer (NA) Ausprägung. <b>Flow unter experimentellen Bedingungen</b> Mit zwei modifizierten Computerspielen (Roboguard und Pacman) gelang es, das Auftreten von Flow systematisch zu beeinflussen und seine Korrelate und Folgen untersuchbar zu machen. Im Wesentlichen wurde - teils in Replikationen – folgendes gezeigt: Zwischen Flow-Erleben und Anforderung besteht gemäß Csikszentmihalyis ursprünglichem Kanalmodell ein kurvelinearer Zusammenhang. Die angepassten mittleren Anforderungen erzeugen nicht nur die höchsten Flow-Werte, sondern sind bei freier Aufgabenwahl auch am attraktivsten. Am unattraktivsten sind zu geringe Anforderungen. Auf Seiten von Personmerkmalen hat erwartungsgemäß eine „Lernziel-Orientierung“ einen leicht förderlichen Einfluss auf das Flow-Erleben in einem Computerspiel. Überraschenderweise hat aber die „Performanz-Orientierung“ einen noch stärkeren Einfluss. Flowdämpfend scheint sich allenfalls die Subskala „Anerkennungssuche“ auszuwirken. Sie korreliert auch leicht positiv mit Besorgnissen während des Spiels. Das Zeiterleben ist erwartungsgemäß auf den flowförderlichen optimalen Anforderungsstufen verkürzt. Je nach Erfassungsmodalität korreliert dieses Erleben auch mit den FKS-Werten. Erwartungsgemäß korreliert Flow-Erleben (FKS) mit der Leistung bei Pacman auf optimalem Anforderungslevel deutlich positiv. Ein erwarteter Bezugsnorm-Effekt verschiedener Rückmeldungsbedingungen auf Flow-Erleben wurde nicht festgestellt. Allerdings waren die realisierten Rückmeldungen sehr unsensibel gegenüber Leistungsschwankungen, weswegen die resultierenden Rückmeldungen unter individueller Bezugsnorm ungeplantermaßen ein (zu) stabiles Leistungsbild ergaben. Insgesamt hat sich besonders das Computerspiel Pacman für Flow-Experimente bewährt, wenn man die Probanden (a) nicht zu lange auf demselben Schwierigkeitsgrad spielen lässt und (b) eine gewisse Asymmetrie in Rechnung stellt, wonach in bedrohungsfreien Spielsituationen zu schwierige Anforderungen attraktiver und flow-induzierender sind als zu leichte Anforderungen und wenn man schließlich (c) den optimalen mittleren Anforderungsgrad an die individuelle Spielkompetenz anpasst. Diese Befundstruktur wurde mit Pacman inzwischen von einer Bielefelder Arbeitsgruppe im Wesentlichen repliziert (Schiefele, pers. Mitteilung, Oktober 2005). <hr> Die elektronische Version des Abschlussberichtes erscheint ohne den Anhang. Der Anhang ist auf Anforderung bei Prof. Dr. Rheinberg erhältlich: <a href="mailto:rheinberg@uni-potsdam.de">rheinberg@uni-potsdam.de</a>
"At-risk" concept
(2005)
On the basis of a mete-analysis of pairwise correlations between working memory tasks and cognitive ability measures, P. L. Ackerman. M. E. Beier, and M. O. Boyle (2005) claimed that working memory capacity (WMC) shares less than 25% of its variance with general intelligence (,;) and with reasoning ability. In this comment, the authors argue that this is an underestimation because of several methodological shortcomings and biases. A reanalysis of the data reported in Ackerman et al. using the correct statistical procedures demonstrates that g and WMC are very highly correlated. On a conceptual level. the authors point out that WMC should be regarded as an explanatory construct for intellectual abilities. Theories of working memory do not claim that WMC is isomorphic with intelligence factors but that it is a very strong predictor of reasoning ability and also predicts general fluid intelligence and g.
Effects of directionality in deductive reasoning : II. Premise integration and conclusion evaluation
(2005)
Previous research (Oberauer & Wilhelm, 2000) has shown an inherent directionality between the two terms linked in premises of typical deductive reasoning tasks. With three experiments we investigated the effect of inherent directionality on the time to integrate two premises and for the derivation of a conclusion. We varied figure (i.e., order of terms in the premises) and direction of inference (i.e., order of terms in the conclusion) in deduction tasks from various domains (propositional reasoning, syllogisms, spatial, temporal, and linear order reasoning). Effects of figure on premise reading times varied with the directionality of the relations. Effects of direction of inference reflected the same directionality for a subset of relations. We propose that two factors are jointly responsible for a large part of observed directionality effects in premise integration: the inherent directionality of relational statements and a general advantage for a given-new order of terms in the second premise. Difficulty of deriving a conclusion is affected by the directionality or relations if and only if the relation is semantically asymmetric, so that the directionality must be preserved in the integrated mental model
Binding and inhibition in working memory : individual and age differences in short-term recognition
(2005)
Two studies investigated the relationship between working memory capacity (WMC), adult age, and the resolution of conflict between familiarity and recollection in short-term recognition tasks. Experiment 1 showed a specific deficit of young adults with low WMC in rejecting intrusion probes (i.e., highly familiar probes) in a modified Sternberg task, which was similar to the deficit found in old adults in a parallel experiment (K. Oberauer, 2001). Experiment 2 generalized these results to 3 recognition paradigms (modified Sternberg, local recognition, and n back tasks). Old adults showed disproportional performance deficits on intrusion probes only in terms of reaction times, whereas young adults with low WMC showed them only in terms of errors. The generality of the effect across paradigms is more compatible with a deficit in content-context bindings subserving recollection than with a deficit in inhibition of irrelevant information in working memory. Structural equation models showed that WMC is related to the efficiency of recollection but not of familiarity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments investigated whether young and old adults can temporarily remove information from a capacity- limited central component of working memory (WM) into another component, the activated part of long-term memory (LTM). Experiment I used a modified Sternberg recognition task (S. Sternberg, 1969); Experiment 2 used an arithmetic memory- updating task. In both paradigms, participants memorized 2 lists, one of which was cued as temporarily irrelevant. Removal of the irrelevant list from capacity-limited WM was indexed by the disappearance of list-length effects of that list on latencies for concurrent processing tasks. Young adults could oursource the irrelevant list within 2-3 s and retrieve it back into the central part of WM later. Old adults showed the same flexibility in the arithmetic updating task but seemed somewhat less able or inclined to temporarily move information into the activated part of LTM in the modified Sternberg task
Refixation probability during reading is lowest near the word center, suggestive of an optimal viewing position (OVP). Counter-intuitively, fixation durations are largest at the OVP, a result called the inverted optimal viewing position (IOVP) effect [Vitu, McConkie, Kerr, & O'Regan, (2001). Vision Research 41, 3513-3533]. Current models of eye-movement control in reading fail to reproduce the IOVP effect. We propose a simple mechanism for generating this effect based on error-correction of mislocated fixations due to saccadic errors, First, we propose an algorithm for estimating proportions of mislocated fixations from experimental data yielding a higher probability for mislocated fixations near word boundaries. Second, we assume that mislocated fixations trigger an immediate start of a new saccade program causing a decrease of associated durations. Thus, the IOVP effect could emerge as a result of a coupling between cognitive and oculomotor processes. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
To investigate eye-movement control in reading, the present thesis examined three phenomena related to the eyes’ landing position within words, (1) the optimal viewing position (OVP), (2) the preferred viewing location (PVL), and (3) the Fixation-Duration Inverted-Optimal Viewing Position (IOVP) Effect. Based on a corpus-analytical approach (Exp. 1), the influence of variables word length, launch site distance, and word frequency was systematically explored. In addition, five experimental manipulations were conducted. First, word center was identified as the OVP, that is the position within a word where refixation probability is minimal. With increasing launch site distance, however, the OVP was found to move towards the word beginning. Several possible causes of refixations were discussed. The issue of refixation saccade programming was extensively investigated, suggesting that pre-planned and directly controlled refixation saccades coexist. Second, PVL curves, that is landing position distributions, show that the eyes are systematically deviated from the OVP, due to visuomotor constraints. By far the largest influence on mean and standard deviation of the Gaussian PVL curve was exhibited by launch site distance. Third, it was investigated how fixation durations vary as a function of landing position. The IOVP effect was replicated: Fixations located at word center are longer than those falling near the edges of a word. The effect of word frequency and/or launch site distance on the IOVP function mainly consisted in a vertical displacement of the curve. The Fixation-Duration IOVP effect is intriguing because word center (the OVP) would appear to be the best place to fixate and process a word. A critical part of the current work was devoted to investigate the origin of the effect. It was suggested that the IOVP effect arises as a consequence of mislocated fixations, i.e. fixations on unintended words, which are caused by saccadic errors. An algorithm for estimating the proportion of mislocated fixations from empirical data was developed, based on extrapolations of landing position distributions beyond word boundaries. As a new central theoretical claim it was suggested that a new saccade program is started immediately if the intended target word is missed. On average, this will lead to decreased durations for mislocated fixations. Because mislocated fixations were shown to be most prevalent at the beginning and end of words, the proposed mechanism generated the inverted U-shape for fixation durations when computed as a function of landing position. The proposed mechanism for generating the effect is generally compatible with both oculomotor and cognitive models of eye-movement control in reading.
Criteria-Based Content Analysis (Steller & Kohnken, 1989) is part of a method used for assessing the credibility of witness statements. One underlying assumption of CBCA is that deceivers will leave out certain contents that they believe will damage their self-image. Recent studies on content-related deceptive strategies of children and adults support this assumption. Nevertheless, results concerning certain motivation-related contents (self-deprecation, pardoning the perpetrator) were inconsistent with this assumption. However, previous studies have dealt with issues other than sexual offense and therefore were of limited external validity concerning specific forensic issues. The aim of this study was to investigate the value of content characteristics with regard to false statements in rape cases. Female non-student adults (N = 120) were given a standardized questionnaire which targeted participants' content- related deception strategies. Results show differences in the strategic value of content characteristics. Moreover, strategies of deception seem to strongly depend on the type of event assessed
The flexible learning of stimulus-reward associations when required by situational context is essential for everyday behavior. Older adults experience a progressive decline in several cognitive functions and show deficiencies in neuropsychological tasks requiring flexible adaptation to external feedback, which could be related to impairments in reward association learning. To study the effect of aging on stimulus-reward association learning 20 young and 20 older adults performed a probabilistic object reversal task (pORT) along with a battery of tests assessing executive functions and general intellectual abilities. The pORT requires learning and reversing associations between actions and their outcomes. Older participants collected fewer points, needed more trials to reach the learning criterion, and completed less blocks successfully compared to young adults. This difference remained statistically significant after correcting for the age effect of other tests assessing executive functions. This suggests that there is an age-related difference in reward association learning as measured using the pORT, which is not closely related to other executive functions with respect to the age effect. In human aging, structural alterations of reward detecting structures and functional changes of the dopaminergic as well as the serotonergic system might contribute to the deficit in reward association learning observed in this study. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
The authors demonstrate that the timing and sequencing of target durations require low-level timing and executive control. Sixteen young (M-age = 19 years) and 16 older (M-age = 70 years) adults participated in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, individual mean-variance functions for low-level timing (isochronous tapping) and the sequencing of multiple targets (rhythm production) revealed (a) a dissociation of low-level timing and sequencing in both age groups, (b) negligible age differences for low-level timing, and (c) large age differences for sequencing. Experiment 2 supported the distinction between low-level timing and executive functions: Selection against a dominant rhythm and switching between rhythms impaired performances in both age groups and induced pronounced perseveration of the dominant pattern in older adults.
We present a detailed process theory of the moment-by-moment working-memory retrievals and associated control structure that subserve sentence comprehension. The theory is derived from the application of independently motivated principles of memory and cognitive skill to the specialized task of sentence parsing. The resulting theory construes sentence processing as a series of skilled associative memory retrievals modulated by similarity-based interference and fluctuating activation. The cognitive principles are formalized in computational form in the Adaptive Control of Thought- Rational (ACT-R) architecture, and our process model is realized in ACT-R. We present the results of 6 sets of simulations: 5 simulation sets provide quantitative accounts of the effects of length and structural interference on both unambiguous and garden-path structures. A final simulation set provides a graded taxonomy of double center embeddings ranging from relatively easy to extremely difficult. The explanation of center-embedding difficulty is a novel one that derives from the model's complete reliance on discriminating retrieval cues in the absence of an explicit representation of serial order information. All fits were obtained with only 1 free scaling parameter fixed across the simulations; all other parameters were ACT-R defaults. The modeling results support the hypothesis that fluctuating activation and similarity-based interference are the key factors shaping working memory in sentence processing. We contrast the theory and empirical predictions with several related accounts of sentence-processing complexity
Media coverage of the 2003 Iraq War frequently contained corrections and retractions of earlier information. For example, claims that Iraqi forces executed coalition prisoners of war after they surrendered were retracted the day after the claims were made. Similarly, tentative initial reports about the discovery of weapons of mass destruction were all later disconfirmed. We investigated the effects of these retractions and disconfirmations on people's memory for and beliefs about war-related events in two coalition countries (Australia and the United States) and one country that opposed the war (Germany). Participants were queried about (a) true events, (b) events initially presented as fact but subsequently retracted, and (c) fictional events. Participants in the United States did not show sensitivity to the correction of misinformation, whereas participants in Australia and Germany discounted corrected misinformation. Our results are consistent with previous findings in that the differences between samples reflect greater suspicion about the motives underlying the war among people in Australia and Germany than among people in the United States