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This book examines why Japan has one of the highest enrolment rates in cram schools and private tutoring worldwide. It sheds light on the causes of this high dependence on ‘shadow education’ and its implications for social inequalities. The book provides a deep and extensive understanding of the role of this kind of education in Japan. It shows new ways to theoretically and empirically address this issue, and offers a comprehensive perspective on the impact of shadow education on social inequality formation that is based on reliable and convincing empirical analyses.
Contrary to earlier studies, the book shows that shadow education does not inevitably result in increasing or persisting inequalities, but also inherits the potential to let students overcome their status-specific disadvantages and contributes to more opportunities in education. Against the background of the continuous expansion and the convergence of shadow education systems across the globe, the findings of this book call for similar works in other national contexts, particularly Western societies without traditional large-scale shadow education markets. The book emphasizes the importance and urgency to deal with the modern excesses of educational expansion and education as an institution, in which the shadow education industry has made itself (seemingly) indispensable.
This book:
• Is the first comprehensive empirical work on the implications of shadow education for educational and social inequalities.
• Draws on quantitative and qualitative data and uses mixed-methods.
• Has major implications for sociological, international and comparative research on the topic.
• Introduces a general theoretical frame to help future research in approaching this under-theorized field.
This investigation examined the dynamic relation between culturally responsive teaching, teacher cultural diversity beliefs, and self-reflection on own teaching. A multiple case study with four ethnic German teachers was conducted using classroom video observations (3 lesson units X 2 raters) and post observation interviews in a culturally and ethnically diverse high school. For these teachers there was a high congruence between culturally responsive teaching and cultural diversity beliefs. Yet their degree of cultural responsiveness and their beliefs differed across teachers. The teachers who were observed to be more culturally responsive also showed elaborated patterns of self-reflection on their own teaching.
The present dissertation about teachers’ cultural diversity beliefs and culturally responsive practices includes a general introduction (Chapter 1), a systematic literature review (Chapter 2), three empirical studies (Chapter 3, 4, and 5) and it ends with a general discussion and conclusion (Chapter 6). The major focus of investigation laid in creating a deeper understanding of teachers’ beliefs about cultural diversity and how those beliefs are related to teaching practices, which could or could not be considered to be culturally responsive. In this dissertation, I relied on insights from theoretical perspectives that derived from the field of psychology such as social cognitive theory and intergroup ideologies, as well as from the field of multicultural education such as culturally responsive teaching.
In Chapter 1, I provide the background of this dissertation, with contextual information regarding the German educational system, the theoretical framework used and the main research objectives of each study.
In Chapter 2, I conducted a systematic review of the existing international studies on trainings addressing cultural diversity beliefs with pre-service teachers. More specifically, the aims of the systematic literature review were (1) to provide a description of main components and contextual characteristics of teacher trainings targeting cultural diversity beliefs, (2) report the training effects, and (3) detail the methodological strengths and weaknesses of these studies. By examining the main components and contextual characteristics of teacher trainings, the effects on beliefs about cultural diversity as well as the methodological strengths and weaknesses of these studies in a single review, I took an integrated approach to these three processes. To review the final pool of studies (N = 36) I used a descriptive and narrative approach, relying primarily on the use of words and text to summarise and explain findings of the synthesis.
The three empirical studies that follow, all highlight aspects of how far and how teacher beliefs about cultural diversity translate into real-world practices in schools. In Chapter 3, to expand the validity of culturally responsive teaching to the German context, I aimed at verifying the dimensional structure of German version of the Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale (CRCMSES; Siwatu, Putman, Starker-Glass, & Lewis, 2015). I conducted Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis, and run correlations between the subscales of the CRCMSES and a measure of cultural diversity- related stress. Data (n = 504) used for the first empirical study (Chapter 3) were collected in the InTePP-project (Inclusive Teaching Professionalization Panel) in which pre-service teachers’ competencies and beliefs were assessed longitudinally at two universities: the University of Potsdam and the University of Cologne.
In the second empirical study, which forms Chapter 4, the focus is on teachers’ practices resembling school approaches to cultural diversity. In this study, I investigated two research questions: (1a) What types of descriptive norms regarding cultural diversity are perceived by teachers and students with and without an immigrant background and (1b) what is their degree of congruence? Additionally, I was also interested in how are teachers’ and students’ perceptions of descriptive norms about cultural diversity related to practices and artefacts in the physical and virtual school environment? Data for the second empirical study (Chapter 4) were previously collected in a dissertation project of doctor Maja Schachner funded by the federal program “ProExzellenz” of the Free State of Thuringia. Adopting a mixed-methods research design I conducted a secondary analysis of data from teachers’ (n = 207) and students’ (n = 1,644) gathered in 22 secondary schools in south-west Germany. Additional sources of data in this study were based on pictures of school interiors (hall and corridors) and sixth-grade classrooms’ walls (n = 2,995), and screenshots from each school website (n = 6,499).
Chapter 5 addresses the question of how culturally responsive teaching, teacher cultural diversity beliefs, and self-reflection on own teaching are related. More specifically, in this study I addressed two research questions: (1) How does CRT relate to teachers’ beliefs about incorporating cultural diversity content into daily teaching and learning activities? And (2) how does the level of teachers’ self-reflection on their own teaching relate to CRT?
For this last empirical chapter, I conducted a multiple case study with four ethnic German teachers who work in one culturally and ethnically diverse high school in Berlin, using classroom video observations and post-observation interviews.
In the final chapter (Chapter 6), I summarised the main findings of the systematic literature review and three empirical studies, and discuss their scientific and practical implications.
This dissertation makes a significant contribution to the field of educational science to understanding culturally responsive teaching in terms of its measurement, focus on both beliefs and practices and the link between the two, and theoretical, practical, and future study implications.
The aim of the present study was to examine how different types of tracking—
between-school streaming, within-school streaming, and course-by-course
tracking—shape students’ mathematics self-concept. This was done in an
internationally comparative framework using data from the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA). After controlling for individual
and track mean achievement, results indicated that generally for students
in course-by-course tracking, high-track students had higher mathematics
self-concepts and low-track students had lower mathematics self-concepts.
For students in between-school and within-school streaming, the reverse pat-
tern was found. These findings suggest a solution to the ongoing debate about
the effects of tracking on students’ academic self-concept and suggest that the
reference groups to which students compare themselves differ according to the
type of tracking.
Between-School Variation in Students' Achievement, Motivation, Affect, and Learning Strategies
(2017)
To plan group-randomized trials where treatment conditions are assigned to schools, researchers need design parameters that provide information about between-school differences in outcomes as well as the amount of variance that can be explained by covariates at the student (L1) and school (L2) levels. Most previous research has offered these parameters for U.S. samples and for achievement as the outcome. This paper and the online supplementary materials provide design parameters for 81 countries in three broad outcome categories (achievement, affect and motivation, and learning strategies) for domain-general and domain-specific (mathematics, reading, and science) measures. Sociodemographic characteristics were used as covariates. Data from representative samples of 15-year-old students stemmed from five cycles of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; total number of students/schools: 1,905,147/70,098). Between-school differences as well as the amount of variance explained at L1 and L2 varied widely across countries and educational outcomes, demonstrating the limited generalizability of design parameters across these dimensions. The use of the design parameters to plan group-randomized trials is illustrated.
Descriptive analyses of socially important or theoretically interesting phenomena and trends are a vital component of research in the behavioral, social, economic, and health sciences.
Such analyses yield reliable results when using representative individual participant data (IPD) from studies with complex survey designs, including educational large-scale assessments (ELSAs) or social, health, and economic survey and panel studies. The meta-analytic integration of these results offers unique and novel research opportunities to provide strong empirical evidence of the consistency and generalizability of important phenomena and trends.
Using ELSAs as an example, this tutorial offers methodological guidance on how to use the two-stage approach to IPD meta-analysis to account for the statistical challenges of complex survey designs (e.g., sampling weights, clustered and missing IPD), first, to conduct descriptive analyses (Stage 1), and second, to integrate results with three-level meta-analytic and meta-regression models to take into account dependencies among effect sizes (Stage 2).
The two-stage approach is illustrated with IPD on reading achievement from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). We demonstrate how to analyze and integrate standardized mean differences (e.g., gender differences), correlations (e.g., with students' socioeconomic status [SES]), and interactions between individual characteristics at the participant level (e.g., the interaction between gender and SES) across several PISA cycles.
All the datafiles and R scripts we used are available online. Because complex social, health, or economic survey and panel studies share many methodological features with ELSAs, the guidance offered in this tutorial is also helpful for synthesizing research evidence from these studies.
In the present paper we empirically investigate the psychometric properties of some of the most famous statistical and logical cognitive illusions from the "heuristics and biases" research program by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, who nearly 50 years ago introduced fascinating brain teasers such as the famous Linda problem, the Wason card selection task, and so-called Bayesian reasoning problems (e.g., the mammography task). In the meantime, a great number of articles has been published that empirically examine single cognitive illusions, theoretically explaining people's faulty thinking, or proposing and experimentally implementing measures to foster insight and to make these problems accessible to the human mind. Yet these problems have thus far usually been empirically analyzed on an individual-item level only (e.g., by experimentally comparing participants' performance on various versions of one of these problems). In this paper, by contrast, we examine these illusions as a group and look at the ability to solve them as a psychological construct. Based on an sample of N = 2,643 Luxembourgian school students of age 16-18 we investigate the internal psychometric structure of these illusions (i.e., Are they substantially correlated? Do they form a reflexive or a formative construct?), their connection to related constructs (e.g., Are they distinguishable from intelligence or mathematical competence in a confirmatory factor analysis?), and the question of which of a person's abilities can predict the correct solution of these brain teasers (by means of a regression analysis).
Differentiation of intelligence refers to changes in the structure of intelligence that depend on individuals' level of general cognitive ability (ability differentiation hypothesis) or age (developmental differentiation hypothesis). The present article aimed to investigate ability differentiation, developmental differentiation, and their interaction with nonlinear factor analytic models in 2 studies. Study 1 was comprised of a nationally representative sample of 7,127 U.S. students (49.4% female; M-age = 14.51, SD = 1.42, range = 12.08-17.00) who completed the computerized adaptive version of the Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery. Study 2 analyzed the norming sample of the Berlin Intelligence Structure Test with 1,506 German students (44% female; M-age = 14.54, SD = 1.35, range = 10.00-18.42). Results of Study 1 supported the ability differentiation hypothesis but not the developmental differentiation hypothesis. Rather, the findings pointed to age-dedifferentiation (i.e., higher correlations between different abilities with increasing age). There was evidence for an interaction between age and ability differentiation, with greater ability differentiation found for older adolescents. Study 2 provided little evidence for ability differentiation but largely replicated the findings for age dedifferentiation and the interaction between age and ability differentiation. The present results provide insight into the complex dynamics underlying the development of intelligence structure during adolescence. Implications for the assessment of intelligence are discussed.
Differentiation hypotheses concern changes in the structural organization of cognitive abilities that depend on the level of general intelligence (ability differentiation) or age (developmental differentiation). Part 1 of this article presents a review of the literature on ability and developmental differentiation effects in children, revealing the need for studies that examine both effects simultaneously in this age group with appropriate statistical methods. Part 2 presents an empirical study in which nonlinear factor analytic models were applied to the standardization sample (N = 2,619 German elementary schoolchildren; 48% female; age: M = 8.8 years, SD = 1.2, range 6-12 years) of the THINK 1-4 intelligence test to investigate ability differentiation, developmental differentiation, and their interaction. The sample was nationally representative regarding age, gender, urbanization, and geographic location of residence but not regarding parents' education and migration background (overrepresentation of children with more educated parents, underrepresentation of children with migration background). The results showed no consistent evidence for the presence of differentiation effects or their interaction. Instead, different patterns were observed for figural, numerical, and verbal reasoning. Implications for the construction of intelligence tests, the assessment of intelligence in children, and for theories of cognitive development are discussed.
Background:
The overall goal of the project ‘StiEL’ is to contribute to the professional development of teachers and other educational staff working at German secondary schools. The aim is to develop an evidence-based training concept for the inclusion of students with diverse abilities. The project is organized as a collaborative research effort of three partnering institutions and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research from 2018-2021.
Methods:
To support the on-going transition towards inclusive school practices, a multi-stage approach is envisaged. The first phase aims at a scoping review of existing literature and programmes on inclusion. The overview is supplemented by interviews with school staff members. Training modules are developed in the second project phase. The third phase of StiEL puts the newly developed training program into practice. The knowledge and skills acquired by the participants through the training as well as the teaching and management of inclusive classrooms after the training are evaluated through longitudinal and ethnographic approaches. The final project phase creates a best practice manual and makes the modules available via open access databases.
Results:
The presentation will focus on the first phase and try to explore the health-related consequences of the transition towards an inclusive school system in Germany for different participants. We will present preliminary results of expert interviews as well as some results from the literature screening. Due to our findings the current practice on German schools towards the road to inclusion is very stressful for all participants. We will explore recommendations for health promoting schools under conditions of inclusion.
Conclusions:
In terms of health-related consequences for all participants, the road to inclusion is very ambitious but also very stressful. Regarding the development of an inclusive school system, we need to focus much more on health and health promotion.
The present study investigates school context effects on psychosocial characteristics (academic self-concept, peer relations, school satisfaction, and school anxiety) of high-achieving and gifted students. Students who did or did not make an early transition from elementary to secondary schools for high-achieving and gifted students in 5th grade in Berlin, Germany, are compared in their psychosocial development. The sample comprises 155 early-entry students who moved to an academically selective secondary school (Gymnasium) and 3,169 regular students who remained in elementary school until the end of 6th grade. Overall, a complex pattern of psychosocial development emerged for all students, with both positive and negative outcomes being observed. Specifically, the transition into academically selective learning environments seemed to come at some cost for psychosocial development. Propensity score matching analysis isolating the effects of selective school intake and the school context effect itself revealed negative contextual effects of early transition to Gymnasium on academic self-concept and school anxiety; additionally, the positive trend in peer relations observed among regular students was not discernible among early-entry students.
Prior research has shown that quantity of schooling affects the development of intelligence in childhood and adolescence. However, it is still debated whether other aspects of schooling-such as ability tracking or, more generally, school quality-can also influence intelligence. In this study, the authors analyzed intelligence gains in academic- and vocational-track schools in Germany, testing for differential effects of school quality (academic vs. vocational track) on psychometric intelligence. Longitudinal data were obtained from a sample of N = 1,038 Grade 7 and 10 students in 49 schools. A nonverbal reasoning test was used as an indicator of general psychometric intelligence, and relevant psychological and social background variables were included in the analyses. Propensity score matching was used to control for selection bias. Results showed a positive effect of attending the academic track.
Effects of social and individual school self-concepts on school engagement during adolescence
(2020)
While school self-concept is an important facilitator of a student's school engagement, previous studies rarely investigated whether it may also explain the change in students' school engagement during secondary school. Moreover, as social relations play an increasingly important role in adolescence, the current research distinguishes between the social and individual school self-concepts of a student. Whereas individual school self-concept uses the perception of a student's own ability in the past in order to estimate perceived current ability, social school self-concept refers to the comparison of a student's own perceived current ability with the current perceived abilities of others. We examined the role of students' individual and social school self-concepts in the development of behavioral and emotional school engagement during the period from grade 8 to grade 9. The sample consisted of 1088 German adolescents at the first measurement time (M-age = 13.70, SD = 0.53; 53.9% girls). The findings suggested a significant decline in both emotional and behavioral school engagement over the span of 1.5 years. In addition, social-but not individual-school self-concept was associated with the change in both dimensions of school engagement over time, such as it may intensify a student's decline in school engagement levels. This might be due to the fact that students with a high social school self-concept tend to increasingly emphasize competition and comparison and strive for high grades, which lowers students' school participation and identification in the long term.
In this paper, we employ a comparative life course approach for Canada and Germany to unravel the relationships among general and vocational educational attainment and different life course activities, with a focus on labour market and income inequality by gender. Life course theory and related concepts of 'time,' 'normative patterns,' 'order and disorder,' and 'discontinuities' are used to inform the analyses. Data from the Paths on Life's Way (Paths) project in British Columbia, Canada and the German Pathways from Late Childhood to Adulthood (LifE) which span 28 and 33 years, respectively, are employed to examine life trajectories from leaving school to around age 45. Sequence analysis and cluster analyses portray both within and between country differences - and in particular gender differences - in educational attainment, employment, and other activities across the life course which has an impact on ultimate labour market participation and income levels. 'Normative' life courses that follow a traditional order correspond with higher levels of full-time work and higher incomes; in Germany more so than Canada, these clusters are male dominated. Clusters characterised by 'disordered' and 'discontinuous' life courses in both countries are female dominated and associated with lower income levels.
Over the past few years, studying abroad and other educational international experiences have become increasingly highly regarded. Nevertheless, research shows that only a minority of students actually take part in
academic mobility programs. But what is it that distinguishes those students who take up these international opportunities from those who do not? In this
study we reviewed recent quantitative studies on why (primarily German) students choose to travel abroad or not. This revealed a pattern of predictive factors. These indicate the key role played by students’ personal and social background, as well as previous international travel and the course of studies they are enrolled in. The study then focuses on teaching students. Both facilitating and debilitating factors are discussed and included in a model illustrating the decision-making process these students use. Finally, we discuss the practical implications for ways in which international, studyrelated travel might be increased in the future. We suggest that higher education institutions analyze individual student characteristics, offering differentiated programs to better meet the needs of different groups, thus raising the likelihood of disadvantaged students participating in academic international travel.
Education in knowledge society is challenged with a lot of problems in particular the interaction between the teacher and learner in social networking software as a key factor affects the learners’ learning and satisfaction (Prammanee, 2005) where “to teach is to communicate, to communicate is to interact, to interact is to learn” (Hefzallah, 2004, p. 48). Analyzing the relation between teacher-learner interaction from a side and learning outcome and learners’ satisfaction from the other side, some basic problems regarding a new learning culture using social networking software are discussed. Most of the educational institutions pay a lot of attentions to the equipments and emerging Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in learning situations. They try to incorporate ICT into their institutions as teaching and learning environments. They do this because they expect that by doing so they will improve the outcome of the learning process. Despite this, the learning outcome as reported in most studies is very limited, because the expectations of self-directed learning are much higher than the reality. Findings from an empirical study (investigating the role of teacher-learner interaction through new digital media wiki in higher education and learning outcome and learner’s satisfaction) are presented recommendations about the necessity of pedagogical interactions in support of teaching and learning activities in wiki courses in order to improve the learning outcome. Conclusions show the necessity for significant changes in the approach of vocational teacher training programs of online teachers in order to meet the requirements of new digital media in coherence with a new learning culture. These changes have to address collaborative instead of individual learning and ICT wiki as a tool for knowledge construction instead of a tool for gathering information.
This edited volume provides insight into how digital badges may enhance formal and informal education by focusing on technical design issues including organizational requirements, instructional design, and deployment. It features current research exploring the theoretical foundation and empirical evidence of the utilization of digital badges as well as case studies that describe current practices and experiences in the use of digital badges for motivation, learning, and instruction in K-12, higher education, workplace learning, and further education settings.
Motivation and Emotion in Learning and Teaching across Educational Contexts brings together current theoretical and methodological perspectives as well as examples of empirical implementations from leading international researchers focusing on the context specificity and situatedness of their core theories in motivation and emotion.
The book is compiled of two main sections. Section I covers theoretical reflections and perspectives on the main theories on emotion and motivation in learning and teaching and their transferability across different educational contexts illustrated with empirical examples. Section II addresses the methodological reflections and perspectives on the methodology that is needed to address the complexity and context specificity of motivation and emotion. In addition to general reflections and perspectives regarding methodology, concrete empirical examples are provided. All cutting-edge chapters include current empirical studies on emotions and motivation in learning and teaching across different contexts (age groups, domains, countries, etc.) making them applicable and relevant to a wide range of contexts and settings.
This high-quality volume with contributions from leading international experts will be an essential resource for researchers, students and teacher trainers interested in the vital role that motivation and emotions can play in education.