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Schülerinnen und Schüler verfügen über verschiedene Detailkenntnisse zur Technik und zu Technologien im Haushalt und im Freizeitbereich. Deshalb liegt es nahe, Technik am Beispiel der Haushaltstechnik zu analysieren und ein Verständnis für technische Systeme zu entwickeln (Orig.). Der Beitrag beinhaltet die didaktischen Grundlagen (Organstrukturmodell und 9-Felder-Matrix) für eine Unterrichtsgestaltung, die mit Hilfe des im Einhefter von Unterricht - Arbeit + Technik vorhandenen Unterrichtsmaterials vorgenommen werden kann. Die Materialien sollen die Schülerinnen und Schüler dazu befähigen, technische Sachsysteme mittels des Organstrukturmodells in ihren Aufbau- und Funktionsbeziehungen zu beschreiben und sie zu klassifizieren (Arbeitsgegenstände / technologische Grundvorgänge). Des weiteren können Stoff-, Energie- und Informationsflüsse anhand technischer Sachsysteme beschrieben werden (nach Orig.).
Parsing costs as predictors of reading difficulty: An evaluation using the Potsdam Sentence Corpus
(2008)
The surprisal of a word on a probabilistic grammar constitutes a promising complexity metric for human sentence comprehension difficulty. Using two different grammar types, surprisal is shown to have an effect on fixation durations and regression probabilities in a sample of German readers’ eye movements, the Potsdam Sentence Corpus. A linear mixed-effects model was used to quantify the effect of surprisal while taking into account unigram and bigram frequency, word length, and empirically-derived word predictability; the so-called “early” and “late” measures of processing difficulty both showed an effect of surprisal. Surprisal is also shown to have a small but statistically non-significant effect on empirically-derived predictability itself. This work thus demonstrates the importance of including parsing costs as a predictor of comprehension difficulty in models of reading, and suggests that a simple identification of syntactic parsing costs with early measures and late measures with durations of post-syntactic events may be difficult to uphold.
The boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) with a novel preview manipulation was used to examine the extent of parafoveal processing of words to the right of fixation. Words n+1 and n+2 had either correct or incorrect previews prior to fixation (prior to crossing the boundary location). In addition, the manipulation utilized either a high or low frequency word in word n+1 location on the assumption that it would be more likely that n+2 preview effects could be obtained when word n+1 was high frequency. The primary findings were that there was no evidence for a preview benefit for word n+2 and no evidence for parafoveal-on-foveal effects when word n+1 is at least four letters long. We discuss implications for models of eye-movement control in reading.
Zur Interaktion von Verarbeitungstiefe und dem Wortvorhersagbarkeitseffekt beim Lesen von Sätzen
(2008)
The predictability of an upcoming word has been found to be a useful predictor in eye movement research, but is expensive to collect and subjective in nature. It would be desirable to have other predictors that are easier to collect and objective in nature if these predictors were capable of capturing the information stored in predictability. This paper contributes to this discussion by testing a possible predictor: conditional co-occurrence probability. This measure is a simple statistical representation of the relatedness of the current word to its context, based only on word co-occurrence patterns in data taken from the Internet. In the regression analyses, conditional co-occurrence probability acts like lexical frequency in predicting fixation durations, and its addition does not greatly improve the model fits. We conclude that readers do not seem to use the information contained within conditional co-occurrence probability during reading for meaning, and that similar simple measures of semantic relatedness are unlikely to be able to replace predictability as a predictor for fixation durations. Keywords: Co-occurrence probability, Cloze predictability, frequency, eye movement, fixation duration.
Warum bezeichnete sich Alexander von Humboldt als Der alte vom Berge (Vecchio della Montagna)?
(2008)
Es de mucho interés saber cómo Alejandro de Humboldt se comportó frente a los indígenas contemporáneos, a quienes tenía muchas veces a su lado en su calidad de acompañantes de viaje y como ayudantes durante muchas actividades científicas e investigaciones. Humboldt, convencido de la unidad del género humano y de la capacidad de superación que tenía todo hombre si se le permitía el acceso a la educación, aceptó a los indígenas con pleno humanismo y respeto. Reconoció sus habilidades especiales y consecuentemente les proporcionó apoyo en muchas situaciones. Esto se puede verificar en base al estudio de sus diarios de viaje durante su estancia en la Nueva España y de México. Este comportamiento hizo que se distinguiera de la mayoría de sus coetáneos de las altas capas sociales dentro de la sociedad colonial hispanoamericana.
Alexander von Humboldt has been labelled a “scientific cosmopolitan”. Through his vast correspondence and a network of personal contacts, he upheld a form of scientific exchange that was characteristic of the eighteenth-century “republic of letters”. This article examines how Humboldt adapted this cosmopolitan tradition of communication to a nineteenth century scientific culture that was largely institutionalized and was becoming increasingly nationalized. Humboldt quite successfully fostered scientific exchange between Berlin and Paris after 1830 and, on various occasions between the 1830s and 1850s, readily advocated international large-scale projects. These examples demonstrate that Humboldt observed the development of nationally defined scientific cultures and the opening of the sciences towards the public realm. Moreover, they indicate how he was able to make use of these developments as he promoted the sciences in Prussia. In scientific controversies within the Parisian scientific community, Humboldt was involuntarily assigned the role of a “neutral” foreign arbitrator. Thus, the development of nineteenth century sciences also jeopardized Humboldt’s unique position as an independent “homme des lettres”.
In seiner sechsstufigen Epochengliederung der Wissenschaftsgeschichte sieht Alexander von Humboldt nur wenige Lichter, welche die abendländische Dunkelheit der Zeit zwischen der wissenschaftlichen Blüte im arabischen Raum und den Entdeckungsfahrten des Columbus durchbrechen. Als den wichtigsten dieser wenigen Wegbereiter hebt der Freiherr den Franziskanermönch Roger Bacon hervor, der sich in fast allen Disziplinen hervorgetan und für die Einheit der Wissenschaften eingesetzt habe. Nicht nur im Kosmos, sondern auch bereits in den populären Vorträgen in der Singakademie und den Kritischen Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Geographie der Neuen Welt würdigt Humboldt den Engländer durch ausführliche Auseinandersetzungen mit dessen Opus maius.
Cavanilles fue uno de los más relevantes botánicos del periodo ilustrado y disfrutó de una acreditada proyección científica en Europa. Por sus contribuciones al conocimiento de la taxonomía botánica puede ser considerado como el más importante naturalista sistemático español del periodo ilustrado. Sus descripciones de centenares de especies de casi todo el mundo continúan hoy unidas a su nombre en la Nomenclatura Botánica Internacional. Cavanilles contribuyó ampliamente al conocimiento de la flora americana, como indicó Humboldt varias veces. En 1805 Humboldt refería que Cavanilles habría de ser alabado perpetuamente. En esta aportación se subraya la relación epistolar y científica de Cavanilles con Humboldt y con los botánicos de lengua alemana de su tiempo.
BACKGROUND: There is an increased need to replace materials derived from fossil sources by renewables. Sugar-cane derived carbohydrates are very abundant in Brazil and are the cheapest sugars available in the market, with more than 400 million tons of sugarcane processed in the year 2007. The objective of this work was to study the preparation of sugar acrylates from free sugars and free acrylic acid, thus avoiding the previous preparation of protected sugar derivatives, such as glycosides, or activated acrylates, such as vinyl acrylate. RESULTS: Lipase catalyzed esterification of three mono- and two disaccharides with acrylic acid, in the presence or absence of molecular sieves was investigated. The reactions were monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the products were analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization–time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. The main products are mono- and diacrylates, while higher esters are formed as minor products. The highest conversion to sugar acrylates was observed for the D-glucose and D-fructose, followed by D-xylose and D-maltose. Molecular sieves had no pronounced effect on the conversion CONCLUSIONS: A feasible method is described to produce and to characterize sugar acrylates, including those containing more than two acrylate groups. The process for production of these higher esters could potentially be optimized further to produce molecules for cross-linking in acrylate polymerization and other applications. The direct enzymatic esterification of free carbohydrates with acrylic acid is unprecedented.
Growth of phytopathogenic fungi in the presence of partially acetylated chitooligosaccharides
(2008)
Four phytopathogenic fungi were cultivated up to six days in media containing chitooligosaccharide mixtures differing in average DP and FA. The three different mixtures were named Q3 (which contained oligosaccharides ofDP2–DP10, withDP2–DP7 asmain components), Q2 (which contained oligosaccharides of DP2–DP12, with DP2–DP10 as main components) and Q1 (which derived from Q2 and contained oligomers of DP5–DP8 with hexamer and a heptamer as the main components). The novel aspect of this work is the description of the effect of mixtures of oligosaccharides with different and known composition on fungal growth rates. The growth rate of Alternaria alternata and Rhizopus stolonifer was initially inhibited by Q3 and Q2 at higher concentrations. Q1 had a growth stimulating effect on these two fungi. Growth of Botrytis cinerea was inhibited by Q3 and Q2, while Q1 had no effect on the growth of this fungus. Growth of Penicillium expansum was only slightly inhibited by higher concentrations of sample Q3, while Q2 and Q1 had no effect. The inhibition of growth rates or their resistance toward chitooligosaccharides correlated with the absence or presence of chitinolytic enzymes in the culture media, respectively.
From the roots of the African plant Bulbine frutescens (Asphodelaceae), two unprecedented novel dimeric phenylanthraquinones, named joziknipholones A and B, possessing axial and centrochirality, were isolated, together with six known compounds. Structural elucidation of the new metabolites was achieved by spectroscopic and chiroptical methods, by reductive cleavage of the central bond between the monomeric phenylanthraquinone and -anthrone portions with sodium dithionite, and by quantum chemical CD calculations. Based on the recently revised absolute axial configuration of the parent phenylanthraquinones, knipholone and knipholone anthrone, the new dimers were attributed to possess the P-configuration (i.e., with the acetyl portions below the anthraquinone plane) at both axes in the case of joziknipholone A, whereas in joziknipholone B, the knipholone part was found to be M-configured. Joziknipholones A and B are active against the chloroquine resistant strain K1 of the malaria pathogen, Plasmodium falciparum, and show moderate activity against murine leukemic lymphoma L5178y cells.
„wie man die Gabe aplicirt“
(2008)