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Plant oxylipins are an important class of signaling molecules in plants. The cyclic adducts of epinephrine or norepinephrine with the naturally occurring oxylipin (12Z,15Z)-9-hydroxy-10-oxo-octadeca-12,15-dienoic acid (KODA, 1) or its synthetic analogues (2-6) have been reported to possess flower-inducing activity toward Lemna paucicostata. By in vivo and in vitro experiments with seedlings of Pharbitis nil cv. Violet carbonyl groups of the alpha-ketols (1 and 3) and the ketones (7 and 9) were enantio-selectively reduced to give their corresponding vicinal diols (2 and 4) and alcohols (8 and 10). The stereochemistry at the oxymethine carbon was determined based on the long range C H coupling constants and the modified Mosher's method. Orientation of the adjacent hydroxyl group in (1 and 3) did not affect the enantio-selectivity, whereas the conversion was slightly affected and higher yields were obtained with the R-enantiomers of the alpha-ketols.
Tea aroma is one of the most important factors affecting the character and quality of tea. Recent advances in methods and instruments for separating and identifying volatile compounds have led to intensive investigations of volatile compounds in tea. These studies have resulted in a number of insightful and useful discoveries. Here we summarize the recent investigations into tea volatile compounds: the volatile compounds in tea products; the metabolic pathways of volatile formation in tea plants and the glycosidically-bound volatile compounds in tea; and the techniques used for studying such compounds. Finally, we discuss practical applications for the improvement of aroma and flavor quality in teas. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Moringa is a mycorrhizal crop cultivated in the tropics and subtropics and appreciated for its nutritive and health-promoting value. As well as improving plant mineral nutrition, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can affect plant synthesis of compounds bioactive against chronic diseases in humans. Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae were used in a full factorial experiment to investigate the impact of AMF on the accumulation of glucosinolates, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, and mineral elements in moringa leaves. Levels of glucosinolates were enhanced, flavonoids and phenolic acids were not affected, levels of carotenoids (including provitamin A) were species-specifically reduced, and mineral elements were affected differently, with only Cu and Zn being increased by the AMF. This study presents novel results on AMF effects on glucosinolates in leaves and supports conclusions that the impacts of these fungi on microelement concentrations in edible plants are species dependent. The nonspecific positive effects on glucosinolates and the species-specific negative effects on carotenoids encourage research on other AMF species to achieve general benefits on bioactive compounds in moringa.
This study is focused on the synthesis and characterization of hydroxy-apo-10'-carotenal/quantum dot (QD) conjugates aiming at the in vivo visualization of beta-ionone, a carotenoid-derived volatile compound known for its important contribution to the flavor and aroma of many fruits, vegetables, and plants. The synthesis of nanoparticles bound to plant volatile precursors was achieved via coupling reaction of the QD to C-27-aldehyde which was prepared from alpha-ionone via 12 steps in 2.4% overall yield. The formation of the QD-conjugate was confirmed by measuring its fluorescence spectrum to observe the occurrence of fluorescence resonance energy transfer.
We produced low temperature (15 degrees C) processed green tea (LTPGT) with higher aroma contents than normal green tea (Sencha). Normal temperature processed green tea (NTPGT), involved storing at 25 degrees C, and Sencha had no storing process. Sensory evaluation showed LTPGT had higher levels of floral and sweet odorants than NTPGT and Sencha. Aroma extract dilution analysis and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry indicated LTPGT had 12 aroma compounds with high factor dilution values (FD). Amongst LTPGT's 12 compounds, indole, jasmine lactone, cis-jasmone, coumarin, and methyl epijasmonate contributed to floral, fruity and sweet characters. In particular, indole increased initially, peaking at 16 h, then gradually decreased; Feeding experiments suggested [N-15]indole and [N-15]oxygenated indoles (OX-indoles) were produced from [N-15]anthranilic acid. We proposed the increase in indole was due to transformation of anthranilic acid during the 16 h storage and the subsequent decline in indole level was due to its conversion to OX-indoles.
Green algae are of great economic importance. Seaweed is consumed fresh or as seasoning in Japan. The commercial value is determined by quality, color, and flavor and is also strongly influenced by the production area. Our research, based on solid phase microextraction gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS), has revealed that volatile compounds differ intensely in the four varieties of commercial green algae. Accordingly, 41 major volatile compounds were identified. Heptadecene was the most abundant compound from Okayama (Ulva prolifera), Tokushima (Ulva prolifera), and Ehime prefecture (Ulva linza). Apocarotenoids, such as ionones, and their derivatives were prominent volatiles in algae from Okayama (Ulva prolifera) and Tokushima prefecture (Ulva prolifera). Volatile, short chained apocarotenoids are among the most potent flavor components and contribute to the flavor of fresh, processed algae, and algae-based products. Benzaldehyde was predominant in seaweed from Shizuoka prefecture (Monostroma nitidum). Multivariant statistical analysis (PCA) enabled simple discrimination of the samples based on their volatile profiles. This work shows the potential of SPME-GC-MS coupled with multivariant analysis to discriminate between samples of different geographical and botanical origins and form the basis for development of authentication methods of green algae products, including seasonings.
The carotenoid lutein can improve human health. Since only a fraction is absorbed from food, lutein supplementation might be recommended. Emulsions could be good carrier systems to improve the bioavailability of lutein. Six different emulsifier compositions were used in this study to prepare lutein-loaded emulsions: beta-lactoglobulin, beta-lactoglobulin/lecithin, Biozate 1, Biozate 1/lecithin, Been 20 and Tween 20/lecithin. The droplet size, resistance to creaming, lutein stability, cytotoxicity and lutein uptake by HT29 cells were investigated. The whey protein beta-lactoglobulin, the whey protein hydrolysate Biozate 1 and the combination with lecithin brought the most promising results. The small droplet sizes and resistance to creaming were an indication of physical stable emulsions. Furthermore, these emulsifiers prevented oxidation of lutein. The choice of emulsifier had a strong impact on the uptake by HT29 cells. The highest lutein absorption was observed with the combination of Biozate 1 and lecithin.
Continuing advances in 'omics methodologies and instrumentation is enhancing the understanding of how plants cope with the dynamic nature of their growing environment. 'Omics platforms have been only recently extended to cover horticultural crop species. Many of the most widely cultivated vegetable crops belong to the genus Brassica: these include plants grown for their root (turnip, rutabaga/swede), their swollen stem base (kohlrabi), their leaves (cabbage, kale, pak choi) and their inflorescence (cauliflower, broccoli). Characterization at the genome, transcript, protein and metabolite levels has illustrated the complexity of the cellular response to a whole series of environmental stresses, including nutrient deficiency, pathogen attack, heavy metal toxicity, cold acclimation, and excessive and sub optimal irradiation. This review covers recent applications of omics technologies to the brassicaceous vegetables, and discusses future scenarios in achieving improvements in crop end-use quality.
Camellia sinensis synthesizes and emits a large variety of volatile phenylpropanoids and benzenoids (VPB). To investigate the enzymes involved in the formation of these VPB compounds, a new C. sinensis short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (CsSDR) was isolated, cloned, sequenced, and functionally characterized. The complete open reading frame of CsSDR contains 996 nucleotides with a calculated protein molecular mass of 34.5 kDa. The CsSDR recombinant protein produced in Escherichia coli exhibited dehydrogenase-reductase activity towards several major VPB compounds in C. sinensis flowers with a strong preference for NADP/NADPH co-factors, and showed affinity for (R)/(S)-1-phenylethanol (1PE), phenylacetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol, and no affinity for acetophenone (AP) and 2-phenylethanol. CsSDR showed the highest catalytic efficiency towards (R)/(S)-1PE. Furthermore, the transient expression analysis in Nicotiana benthamiana plants validated that CsSDR could convert 1PE to AP in plants. CsSDR transcript level was not significantly affected by floral development and some jasmonic acid-related environmental stress, and CsSDR transcript accumulation was detected in most floral tissues such as receptacle and anther, which were main storage locations of VPB compounds. Our results indicate that CsSDR is expressed in C. sinensis flowers and is likely to contribute to a number of floral VPB compounds including the 1PE derivative AP.
Continuing advances in 'omics methodologies and instrumentation is enhancing the understanding of how plants cope with the dynamic nature of their growing environment. 'Omics platforms have been only recently extended to cover horticultural crop species. Many of the most widely cultivated vegetable crops belong to the genus Brassica: these include plants grown for their root (turnip, rutabaga/swede), their swollen stem base (kohlrabi), their leaves (cabbage, kale, pak choi) and their inflorescence (cauliflower, broccoli). Characterization at the genome, transcript, protein and metabolite levels has illustrated the complexity of the cellular response to a whole series of environmental stresses, including nutrient deficiency, pathogen attack, heavy metal toxicity, cold acclimation, and excessive and sub optimal irradiation. This review covers recent applications of omics technologies to the brassicaceous vegetables, and discusses future scenarios in achieving improvements in crop end-use quality.
2-Phenylethanol (2PE) and 3,5-dimethoxytoluene (DMT) are characteristic scent compounds in specific roses such as Rosa x hybrida cv. 'Yves Piaget'. We analyzed the endogenous concentrations and emission of 2PE and DMT during the unfurling process in different floral organs, as well as changes in transcript levels of the two key genes, PAR and OOMT2.
The emission of both 2PE and DMT increased during floral development to reach peaks at the fully unfurled stage. The relative transcripts of PAR and OOMT2 also increased during floral development. Whereas the maximum for OOMT2 was found at the fully unfurled stage (stage 4), similar expression levels of PAR were detected at stage 4 and the senescence stage (stage 6). The results demonstrate a positive correlation between the expression levels of PAR and OOMT2 and the emission of 2PE and DMT. In addition, endogenous volatiles and relative transcripts showed tissue- and development-specific patterns. (C) 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Tomato is susceptible to pest infestations by both spider mites and aphids. The effects of each individual pest on plants are known, whereas multiple-pest infestations have received little interest. We studied the effects of single-versus multiple-pest infestation by Tetranychus urticae and Myzus persicae on tomato biochemistry (Solanum lycopersicum) by combining a metabolomic approach and analyses of carotenoids using UHPLC-ToF-MS and volatiles using GC-MS. Plants responded differently to aphids and mites after 3 weeks of infestation, and a multiple infestation induced a specific metabolite composition in plants. In addition, we showed that volatiles emissions differed between the adaxial and abaxial leaf epidermes and identified compounds emitted particularly in response to a multiple infestation (cyclohexadecane, dodecane, aromadendrene, and beta-elemene). Finally, the carotenoid concentrations in leaves and stems were more affected by multiple than single infestations. Our study highlights and discusses the interplay of biotic stressors within the terpenoid metabolism.
Spider mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) and aphids, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Pterygota: Aphididae) share many host-plants, similar abiotic conditions and are world-wide distributed therefore, they often occur simultaneously in crops. However, the effects of interspecific interactions on the biology of these pests were poorly investigated. To test if they perform differently under intra- versus inter-specific interactions, host-plant acceptance, fecundity, survival, the total number of individuals and the rate of increase in the number of individuals were studied doing non-choice bioassays under laboratory conditions with leaf discs of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. 'Ailsa Craig'), pak choi (Brassica rapa L. var. chinensis 'Black Behi') and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. 'Saxa'). Alone, the pests differently accepted the host-plants. The acceptance of pak choi by spider mites was lower under interspecific interactions and higher on tomato for aphids. In general, spider mites' performance decreased when aphids were present; the fecundity, the number of individuals and the rate of increase being significantly lower on pak choi and bean. In contrast, aphids produced more offspring in the presence of spider mites, leading to a higher rate of increase in aphids individuals on tomato and pak choi. Thus, pest' responses to interspecific interactions is species-specific.
The spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch and the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) both infest a number of economically significant crops, including tomato (Solanurn lycopersicum). Although used for decades to control pests, the impact of green lacewing larvae Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) on plant biochemistry was not investigated. Here, we used profiling methods and targeted analyses to explore the impact of the predator and herbivore(s)-predator interactions on tomato biochemistry. Each pest and pest -predator combination induced a characteristic metabolite signature in the leaf and the fruit thus, the plant exhibited a systemic response. The treatments had a stronger impact on non-volatile metabolites including abscisic acid and amino acids in the leaves in comparison with the fruits. In contrast, the various biotic factors had a greater impact on the carotenoids in the fruits. We identified volatiles such as myrcene and alpha-terpinene which were induced by pest -predator interactions but not by single species, and we demonstrated the involvement of the phytohormone abscisic acid in tritrophic interactions for the first time. More importantly, C. carnea larvae alone impacted the plant metabolome, but the predator did not appear to elicit particular defense pathways on its own. Since the presence of both C. carnea larvae and pest individuals elicited volatiles which were shown to contribute to plant defense, C. carnea larvae could therefore contribute to the reduction of pest infestation, not only by its preying activity, but also by priming responses to generalist herbivores such as T urticae and M. persicae. On the other hand, the use of C. carnea larvae alone did not impact carotenoids thus, was not prejudicial to the fruit quality. The present piece of research highlights the specific impact of predator and tritrophic interactions with green lacewing larvae, spider mites, and aphids on different components of the tomato primary and secondary metabolism for the first time, and provides cues for further in-depth studies aiming to integrate entomological approaches and plant biochemistry.
The spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch and the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) both infest a number of economically significant crops, including tomato (Solanurn lycopersicum). Although used for decades to control pests, the impact of green lacewing larvae Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) on plant biochemistry was not investigated. Here, we used profiling methods and targeted analyses to explore the impact of the predator and herbivore(s)-predator interactions on tomato biochemistry. Each pest and pest -predator combination induced a characteristic metabolite signature in the leaf and the fruit thus, the plant exhibited a systemic response. The treatments had a stronger impact on non-volatile metabolites including abscisic acid and amino acids in the leaves in comparison with the fruits. In contrast, the various biotic factors had a greater impact on the carotenoids in the fruits. We identified volatiles such as myrcene and alpha-terpinene which were induced by pest -predator interactions but not by single species, and we demonstrated the involvement of the phytohormone abscisic acid in tritrophic interactions for the first time. More importantly, C. carnea larvae alone impacted the plant metabolome, but the predator did not appear to elicit particular defense pathways on its own. Since the presence of both C. carnea larvae and pest individuals elicited volatiles which were shown to contribute to plant defense, C. carnea larvae could therefore contribute to the reduction of pest infestation, not only by its preying activity, but also by priming responses to generalist herbivores such as T urticae and M. persicae. On the other hand, the use of C. carnea larvae alone did not impact carotenoids thus, was not prejudicial to the fruit quality. The present piece of research highlights the specific impact of predator and tritrophic interactions with green lacewing larvae, spider mites, and aphids on different components of the tomato primary and secondary metabolism for the first time, and provides cues for further in-depth studies aiming to integrate entomological approaches and plant biochemistry.
The physiological functions of sphingolipids in animals have been intensively studied, while less attention has been paid to their roles in plants. Here, we reveal the involvement of sphingolipid delta8 desaturase (SlSLD) in the chilling resistance of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom). We used the virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) approach to knock-down SlSLD expression in tomato leaves, and then evaluated chilling resistance. Changes in leaf cell structure under a chilling treatment were observed by transmission electron microscopy. In control plants, SlSLD was highly expressed in the fruit and leaves in response to a chilling treatment. The degree of chilling damage was greater in SlSLD-silenced plants than in control plants, indicating that SlSLD knock-down significantly reduced the chilling resistance of tomato. Compared with control plants, SlSLD-silenced plants showed higher relative electrolytic leakage and malondialdehyde content, and lower superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities after a chilling treatment. Chilling severely damaged the chloroplasts in SlSLD-silenced plants, resulting in the disruption of chloroplast membranes, swelling of thylakoids, and reduced granal stacking. Together, these results show that SlSLD is crucial for chilling resistance in tomato.
Carotenoids are best known as a source of natural antioxidants. Physiologically, carotenoids are part of the photoprotection in plants as they act as scavengers of reactive oxygen species (ROS). An important source of carotenoids in European food is Brassica oleracea. Focusing on the most abundant carotenoids, we estimated the contents of beta-carotene, (9Z)-neoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein as well as those of chlorophylls a and b to assess their variability in Brassica oleracea var. sabellica. Our analyses included more than 30 cultivars categorized in five distinct sets grouped according to morphological characteristics or geographical origin. Our results demonstrated specific carotenoid patterns characteristic for American, Italian, and red-colored kale cultivars. Moreover, we demonstrated a tendency of high zeaxanthin proportions under traditional harvest conditions, which accord to low-temperature regimes. We also compared the carotenoid patterns of self-generated hybrid lines. Corresponding findings indicated that crossbreeding has a high potential for carotenoid content optimization in kale.
Malnutrition, poor health, hunger, and even starvation are still the world's greatest challenges. Malnutrition is defined as deficiency of nutrition due to not ingesting the proper amounts of nutrients by simply not eating enough food and/or by consuming nutrient-poor food in respect to the daily nutritional requirements. Moreover, malnutrition and disease are closely associated and incidences of such diet-related diseases increase particularly in low- and middle-income states. While foods of animal origin are often unaffordable to low-income families, various neglected crops can offer an alternative source of micronutrients, vitamins, as well as health-promoting secondary plant metabolites. Therefore, agricultural and horticultural research should develop strategies not only to produce more food, but also to improve access to more nutritious food. In this context, one promising approach is to promote biodiversity in the dietary pattern of low-income people by getting access to nutritional as well as affordable food and providing recommendations for food selection and preparation. Worldwide, a multitude of various plant species are assigned to be consumed as grains, vegetables, and fruits, but only a limited number of these species are used as commercial cash crops. Consequently, numerous neglected and underutilized species offer the potential to diversify not only the human diet, but also increase food production levels, and, thus, enable more sustainable and resilient agro- and horti-food systems. To exploit the potential of neglected plant (NP) species, coordinated approaches on the local, regional, and international level have to be integrated that consequently demand the involvement of numerous multi-stakeholders. Thus, the objective of the present review is to evaluate whether NP species are important as “Future Food” for improving the nutritional status of humans as well as increasing resilience of agro- and horti-food systems.
Indigenous African leafy vegetables vary enormously in their secondary plant metabolites whereat genus and the species have a great impact. In African nightshade (Solanum scabrum), spiderplant (Cleome gynandra), amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), Ethiopian kale (Brassica carinata) and common kale (Brassica oleracea) the specific secondary metabolite profile was elucidated and gained detailed data about carotenoids, chlorophylls, glucosinolates and phenolic compounds all having an appropriate contribution to health beneficial properties of indigenous African leafy vegetables. Exemplarily, various quercetin glycosides such as quercetin-3-rutinoside occur in high concentrations in African nightshade, spiderplant, and amaranth between similar to 1400-3300 mu g/g DW. Additionally the extraordinary hydroxydnnamic acid derivatives such as glucaric isomers and isocitric acid isomers are found especially in amaranth (up to similar to 1250 mu g/g DW) and spiderplant (up to 120 mu g/g DW). Carotenoids concentrations are high in amaranth (up to 101.7 mu g/g DW) and spiderplants (up to 64.7 mu g/g DW) showing high concentrations of beta-carotene, the pro-vitamin A. In contrast to the ubiquitous occurring phenolics and carotenoids, glucosinolates are only present in the Brassicales species Ethiopian kale, common kale and spiderplant characterized by diverse glucosinolate profiles. Generally, the consumption of a variety of these indigenous African leafy vegetables can be recommended to contribute to different benefits such as antioxidant activity, increase pro-vitamin A and anticancerogenic compounds in a healthy diet. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) affect host physiological processes in various ways. This study aims at elucidating the dependence of bacterial-induced growth promotion on the plant genotype and characterizing plant metabolic adaptations to PGPB. Eighteen Arabidopsis thaliana accessions were inoculated with the PGPB strain Kosakonia radicincitans DSM 16656(T). Colonisation pattern was assessed by enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP)-tagged K. radicincitans in three A. thaliana accessions differing in their growth response. Metabolic impact of bacterial colonisation was determined for the best responding accession by profiling distinct classes of plant secondary metabolites and root exudates. Inoculation of 18 A. thaliana accessions resulted in a wide range of growth responses, from repression to enhancement. Testing the bacterial colonisation of three accessions did not reveal a differential pattern. Profiling of plant secondary metabolites showed a differential accumulation of glucosinolates, phenylpropanoids and carotenoids in roots. Analysis of root exudates demonstrated that primary and secondary metabolites were predominantly differentially depleted by bacterial inoculation. The plant genotype controls the bacterial growth promoting traits. Levels of lutein and beta-carotene were elevated in inoculated roots. Supplementing a bacterial suspension with beta-carotene increased bacterial growth, while this was not the case when lutein was applied, indicating that beta-carotene could be a positive regulator of plant growth promotion.