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Objective: The delineation of developmental pathways to juvenile depressive symptoms is of major clinical interest because these are known to be predictive for adult mood disorders and for a range of other mental health problems. This study investigates the impact of child temperament and early maternal distress, both of which are known to influence children's emotional development, on preadolescent depression. Methods: In a prospective, longitudinal at-risk sample (163 boys, 178 girls), we assessed temperament at the age of 3 months and at 2 years, 4.5 years, and 8 years, respectively, and chronic maternal distress during infancy. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was used to investigate the prediction of depressive symptoms at the age of 11 years measured by the Child Depression Inventory. In addition, we controlled for psychosocial and obstetric perinatal risks and gender. Results: Psychosocial risks and self-control temperament made significant independent contributions to preadolescent depression, whereas fearful, difficult temperament and obstetric risks were unrelated to depressive outcome. Interestingly, a clear gender difference emerged with a significant prediction from maternal distress only in girls. Conclusions: Our data extend previous findings of a concurrent association between regulative temperament and juvenile depression to a predictive view. Furthermore, the results point toward gender-specific pathways to preadolescent depression and support earlier findings indicating that subclinical maternal distress may exert as detrimental effects on child development as clinical depression.
Objective: A difficult or undercontrolled temperament, as well as harsh parental discipline or a lack of warmth, has long been regarded as risk factors for the development of externalizing problems. In addition, it has been suggested that children with difficult temperament are especially susceptible to rearing influences. We investigated the impact of early temperament and parenting and their interactions on externalizing behavior at school age.
Methods: Participants were 148 boys and 160 girls from a prospective longitudinal study on a high-risk sample. At ages 3 months and 2 years, temperament was assessed by a highly structured parent interview and standardized behavioral observations. Maternal parenting was assessed by videotaped behavioral observation and a parent questionnaire. Externalizing problems at age 8 years were measured by the Child Behavior Checklist.
Results: Using hierarchical linear regression analyses, we found that externalizing problems were predicted by psychosocial adversity and poor self-control, whereas no main effect for restrictive parenting or maternal empathy was found. Fearful-inhibited boys were positively affected by empathic and sensitive parenting, whereas girls who were low in self-control and/or fearful developed less externalizing problems with restrictive parenting.
Conclusion: Our results partly support the differential susceptibility hypothesis. In addition, they point toward gender-specific pathways in the development of externalizing problems.
Background:
Recent evidence from animal experiments and studies in humans suggests that early age at first drink (AFD) may lead to higher stress-induced drinking. The present study aimed to extend these findings by examining whether AFD interacted with stressful life events (SLE) and/or with daily hassles regarding the impact on drinking patterns among young adults.
Method:
In 306 participants of an epidemiological cohort study, AFD was assessed together with SLE during the past 3 years, daily hassles in the last month, and drinking behavior at age 22. As outcome variables, 2 variables were derived, reflecting different aspects of alcohol use: the amount of alcohol consumed in the last month and the drinking frequency, indicated by the number of drinking days in the last month.
Results:
Linear regression models revealed an interaction effect between the continuous measures of AFD and SLE on the amount of alcohol consumed. The earlier young adults had their first alcoholic drink and the higher the levels of SLE they were exposed to, the disproportionately more alcohol they consumed. Drinking frequency was not affected by an interaction of these variables, while daily hassles and their interaction with AFD were unrelated to drinking behavior.
Conclusions:
These findings highlight the importance of early age at drinking onset as a risk factor for later heavy drinking under high load of SLE. Prevention programs should aim to raise age at first contact with alcohol. Additionally, support in stressful life situations and the acquisition of effective coping strategies might prevent heavy drinking in those with earlier drinking onset.