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Abstract. The Sea of Marmara, in northwestern Turkey, is a transition zone where the dextral North Anatolian Fault zone (NAFZ) propagates westward from the Anatolian Plate to the Aegean Sea Plate. The area is of interest in the context of seismic hazard of Istanbul, a metropolitan area with about 15 million inhabitants. Geophysical observations indicate that the crust is heterogeneous beneath the Marmara basin, but a detailed characterization of the crustal heterogeneities is still missing. To assess if and how crustal heterogeneities are related to the NAFZ segmentation below the Sea of Marmara, we develop new crustal-scale 3-D density models which integrate geological and seismological data and that are additionally constrained by 3-D gravity modeling. For the latter, we use two different gravity datasets including global satellite data and local marine gravity observation. Considering the two different datasets and the general non-uniqueness in potential field modeling, we suggest three possible “end-member” solutions that are all consistent with the observed gravity field and illustrate the spectrum of possible solutions. These models indicate that the observed gravitational anomalies originate from significant density heterogeneities within the crust. Two layers of sediments, one syn-kinematic and one pre-kinematic with respect to the Sea of Marmara formation are underlain by a heterogeneous crystalline crust. A felsic upper crystalline crust (average density of 2720 kgm⁻³) and an intermediate to mafic lower crystalline crust (average density of 2890 kgm⁻³) appear to be cross-cut by two large, dome-shaped mafic highdensity bodies (density of 2890 to 3150 kgm⁻³) of considerable thickness above a rather uniform lithospheric mantle (3300 kgm⁻³). The spatial correlation between two major bends of the main Marmara fault and the location of the highdensity bodies suggests that the distribution of lithological heterogeneities within the crust controls the rheological behavior along the NAFZ and, consequently, maybe influences fault segmentation and thus the seismic hazard assessment in the region.
Abstract. The Sea of Marmara, in northwestern Turkey, is a transition zone where the dextral North Anatolian Fault zone (NAFZ) propagates westward from the Anatolian Plate to the Aegean Sea Plate. The area is of interest in the context of seismic hazard of Istanbul, a metropolitan area with about 15 million inhabitants. Geophysical observations indicate that the crust is heterogeneous beneath the Marmara basin, but a detailed characterization of the crustal heterogeneities is still missing. To assess if and how crustal heterogeneities are related to the NAFZ segmentation below the Sea of Marmara, we develop new crustal-scale 3-D density models which integrate geological and seismological data and that are additionally constrained by 3-D gravity modeling. For the latter, we use two different gravity datasets including global satellite data and local marine gravity observation. Considering the two different datasets and the general non-uniqueness in potential field modeling, we suggest three possible “end-member” solutions that are all consistent with the observed gravity field and illustrate the spectrum of possible solutions. These models indicate that the observed gravitational anomalies originate from significant density heterogeneities within the crust. Two layers of sediments, one syn-kinematic and one pre-kinematic with respect to the Sea of Marmara formation are underlain by a heterogeneous crystalline crust. A felsic upper crystalline crust (average density of 2720 kgm⁻³) and an intermediate to mafic lower crystalline crust (average density of 2890 kgm⁻³) appear to be cross-cut by two large, dome-shaped mafic highdensity bodies (density of 2890 to 3150 kgm⁻³) of considerable thickness above a rather uniform lithospheric mantle (3300 kgm⁻³). The spatial correlation between two major bends of the main Marmara fault and the location of the highdensity bodies suggests that the distribution of lithological heterogeneities within the crust controls the rheological behavior along the NAFZ and, consequently, maybe influences fault segmentation and thus the seismic hazard assessment in the region.
Based on a numerical model of the Northeast German Basin (NEGB), we investigate the sensitivity of the calculated thermal field as resulting from heat conduction, forced and free convection in response to consecutive horizontal and vertical mesh refinements. Our results suggest that computational findings are more sensitive to consecutive horizontal mesh refinements than to changes in the vertical resolution. In addition, the degree of mesh sensitivity depends strongly on the type of the process being investigated, whether heat conduction, forced convection or free thermal convection represents the active heat driver. In this regard, heat conduction exhibits to be relative robust to imposed changes in the spatial discretization. A systematic mesh sensitivity is observed in areas where forced convection promotes an effective role in shorten the background conductive thermal field. In contrast, free thermal convection is to be regarded as the most sensitive heat transport process as demonstrated by non-systematic changes in the temperature field with respect to imposed changes in the model resolution.
We present a new three-dimensional density model of the Central Andes characterizing the structure and composition of the lithosphere together with a geodynamic simulation subjected to continental intraplate shortening. The principal aim of this study is to assess the link between heterogeneities in the lithosphere and different deformation patterns and styles along the orogen-foreland system of the Central Andes. First, we performed a 3D integration of new geological and geophysical data with previous models through forward modelling of Bouguer anomalies. Subsequently, a geodynamic model was set-up and parametrized from the previously obtained 3D structure and composition. We do not find a unambigous correlation between the resulting density configuration and terrane boundaries proposed by other authors. Our models reproduce the observed Bouguer anomaly and deformation patterns in the foreland. We find that thin-skinned deformation in the Subandean fold-and thrust belt is controlled by a thick sedimentary layer and coeval underthrusting of thin crust of the foreland beneath the thick crust of the Andean Plateau. In the adjacent thick-skinned deformation province of the inverted Cretaceous extensional Santa Barbara System sedimentary strata are much thinner and crustal thickness transitions from greater values in the Andean to a more reduced thickness in the foreland. Our results show that deformation processes occur where the highest gradients of lithospheric strength are present between the orogen and the foreland, thus suggesting a spatial correlation between deformation and lithospheric strength.
To investigate and quantify main physical heat driving processes affecting the present-day subsurface thermal field, we study a complex geological setting, the Northeast German Basin (NEGB). The internal geological structure of the NEGB is characterized by the presence of a relatively thick layer of Permian Zechstein salt (up to 5000 m), which forms many salt diapirs and pillows locally reaching nearly the surface. By means of three-dimensional numerical simulations we explore the role of heat conduction, pressure, and density driven groundwater flow as well as fluid viscosity related effects. Our results suggest that the regional temperature distribution within the basin results from interactions between regional pressure forces as driven by topographic gradients and thermal diffusion locally enhanced by thermal conductivity contrasts between the different sedimentary rocks with the highly conductive salt playing a prominent role. In contrast, buoyancy forces triggered by temperature-dependent fluid density variations are demonstrated to affect only locally the internal thermal configuration. Locations, geometry, and wavelengths of convective thermal anomalies are mainly controlled by the permeability field and thickness values of the respective geological layers.
In an ocean-continent subduction zone, the assessment of the lithospheric thermal state is essential to determine the controls of the deformation within the upper plate and the dip angle of the subducting lithosphere. In this study, we evaluate the degree of influence of both the configuration of the upper plate (i.e., thickness and composition of the rock units) and variations of the subduction angle on the lithospheric thermal field of the southern Central Andes (29 degrees-39 degrees S). Here, the subduction angle increases from subhorizontal (5 degrees) north of 33 degrees S to steep (similar to 30 degrees) in the south. We derived the 3D temperature and heat flow distribution of the lithosphere in the southern Central Andes considering conversion of S wave tomography to temperatures together with steady-state conductive thermal modeling. We found that the orogen is overall warmer than the forearc and the foreland and that the lithosphere of the northern part of the foreland appears colder than its southern counterpart. Sedimentary blanketing and the thickness of the radiogenic crust exert the main control on the shallow thermal field (<50km depth). Specific conditions are present where the oceanic slab is relatively shallow (<85 km depth) and the radiogenic crust is thin. This configuration results in relatively colder temperatures compared to regions where the radiogenic crust is thick and the slab is steep. At depths >50km, the temperatures of the overriding plate are mainly controlled by the mantle heat input and the subduction angle. The thermal field of the upper plate likely preserves the flat subduction angle and influences the spatial distribution of shortening.
The deep thermal field in sedimentary basins can be affected by convection, conduction or both resulting from the structural inventory, physical properties of geological layers and physical processes taking place therein. For geothermal energy extraction, the controlling factors of the deep thermal field need to be understood to delineate favorable drill sites and exploitation compartments. We use geologically based 3-D finite element simulations to figure out the geologic controls on the thermal field of the geothermal research site Gro Schonebeck located in the E part of the North German Basin. Its target reservoir consists of Permian Rotliegend clastics that compose the lower part of a succession of Late Carboniferous to Cenozoic sediments, subdivided into several aquifers and aquicludes. The sedimentary succession includes a layer of mobilized Upper Permian Zechstein salt which plays a special role for the thermal field due to its high thermal conductivity. Furthermore, the salt is impermeable and due to its rheology decouples the fault systems in the suprasalt units from subsalt layers. Conductive and coupled fluid and heat transport simulations are carried out to assess the relative impact of different heat transfer mechanisms on the temperature distribution. The measured temperatures in 7 wells are used for model validation and show a better fit with models considering fluid and heat transport than with a purely conductive model. Our results suggest that advective and convective heat transport are important heat transfer processes in the suprasalt sediments. In contrast, thermal conduction mainly controls the subsalt layers. With a third simulation, we investigate the influence of a major permeable and of three impermeable faults dissecting the subsalt target reservoir and compare the results to the coupled model where no faults are integrated. The permeable fault may have a local, strong impact on the thermal, pressure and velocity fields whereas the impermeable faults only cause deviations of the pressure field.
Previous thermomechanical modeling studies indicated that variations in the temperature and strength of the crystalline crust might be responsible for the juxtaposition of domains with thin-skinned and thick-skinned crustal deformation along strike the foreland of the central Andes. However, there is no evidence supporting this hypothesis from data-integrative models. We aim to derive the density structure of the lithosphere by means of integrated 3-D density modeling, in order to provide a new basis for discussions of compositional variations within the crust and for future thermal and rheological modeling studies. Therefore, we utilize available geological and geophysical data to obtain a structural and density model of the uppermost 200km of the Earth. The derived model is consistent with the observed Bouguer gravity field. Our results indicate that the crystalline crust in northern Argentina can be represented by a lighter upper crust (2,800kg/m(3)) and a denser lower crust (3,100kg/m(3)). We find new evidence for high bulk crustal densities >3,000kg/m(3) in the northern Pampia terrane. These could originate from subducted Puncoviscana wackes or pelites that ponded to the base of the crystalline crust in the late Proterozoic or indicate increasing bulk content of mafic material. The precise composition of the northern foreland crust, whether mafic or felsic, has significant implications for further thermomechanical models and the rheological behavior of the lithosphere. A detailed sensitivity analysis of the input parameters indicates that the model results are robust with respect to the given uncertainties of the input data.
The Alpine orogen formed as a result of the collision between the Adriatic and European plates. Significant crustal heterogeneity exists within the region due to the long history of interplay between these plates, other continental and oceanic blocks in the region, and inherited crustal features from earlier orogenies. Deformation relating to the collision continues to the present day. Here, a seismically constrained, 3-D structural and density model of the lithosphere of the Alps and their respective forelands, derived from integrating numerous geoscientific datasets, was adjusted to match the observed gravity field. It is shown that the distribution of seismicity and deformation within the region correlates well to thickness and density changes within the crust, and that the present-day Adriatic crust is both thinner and denser (22.5 km, 2800 kg m(-3) ) than the European crust (27.5 km, 2750 kg m(-3)). Alpine crust derived from each respective plate is found to show the same trend, with zones of Adriatic provenance (Austro-Alpine unit and Southern Alps) found to be denser and those of European provenance (Helvetic zone and Tauern Window) to be less dense. This suggests that the respective plates and related terranes had similar crustal properties to the present-day ones prior to orogenesis. The model generated here is available for open-access use to further discussions about the crust in the region.
Dissolved CO2 storage in geological formations with low pressure, low risk and large capacities
(2017)
Geological CO2 storage is a mitigation technology to reduce CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. However, major concerns are the pressure increase and saltwater displacement in the mainly targeted deep groundwater aquifers due to injection of supercritical CO2. The suggested solution is storage of CO2 exclusively in the dissolved state. In our exemplary regional case study of the North East German Basin based on a highly resolved temperature and pressure distribution model and a newly developed reactive transport coupling, we have quantified that 4.7 Gt of CO2 can be stored in solution compared to 1.5 Gt in the supercritical state.
Understanding the interactions between the different processes that control the geothermal and fluid flow fields in sedimentary basins is crucial for exploitation of geothermal energy. Numerical models provide predictive and feasible information for a correct assessment of geothermal resources especially in areas where data acquisition is demanding. Here, we present results from numerical efforts to characterize the thermal structure and its interaction with the fluid system for the area of the North East German Basin (NEGB). The relative impact of the different (diffusive and advective) processes affecting the hydrothermal setting of the basin are investigated by means of three- dimensional numerical simulations. Lithospheric-scale numerical models are evaluated to understand the specific thermal signature of the relevant factors influencing the present-day conductive geothermal field in the NEGB. Shallow and deep structural controls on the thermal configuration of the basin are addressed and quantified. Interaction between the resulting thermal field and the active fluid system is investigated by means of three-dimensional simulations of coupled fluid flow and heat transport. Factors influencing stability and reliability of modeling predictions are discussed. The main effort is to build a physically consistent model for the basin which integrates the impacts of thermal gradients on the regional fluid regime and their coupling with the main geological units defining the basin.
How biased are our models?
(2021)
Geophysical process simulations play a crucial role in the understanding of the subsurface. This understanding is required to provide, for instance, clean energy sources such as geothermal energy. However, the calibration and validation of the physical models heavily rely on state measurements such as temperature. In this work, we demonstrate that focusing analyses purely on measurements introduces a high bias. This is illustrated through global sensitivity studies. The extensive exploration of the parameter space becomes feasible through the construction of suitable surrogate models via the reduced basis method, where the bias is found to result from very unequal data distribution. We propose schemes to compensate for parts of this bias. However, the bias cannot be entirely compensated. Therefore, we demonstrate the consequences of this bias with the example of a model calibration.
We examined the relationship between the mechanical strength of the lithosphere and the distribution of seismicity within the overriding continental plate of the southern Central Andes (SCA, 29 degrees-39 degrees S), where the oceanic Nazca Plate changes its subduction angle between 33 degrees S and 35 degrees S, from subhorizontal in the north (<5 degrees) to steep in the south (similar to 30 degrees). We computed the long-term lithospheric strength based on an existing 3D model describing variations in thickness, density, and temperature of the main geological units forming the lithosphere of the SCA and adjacent forearc and foreland regions. The comparison between our results and seismicity within the overriding plate (upper-plate seismicity) shows that most of the events occur within the modeled brittle domain of the lithosphere. The depth where the deformation mode switches from brittle frictional to thermally activated ductile creep provides a conservative lower bound to the seismogenic zone in the overriding plate of the study area. We also found that the majority of upper-plate earthquakes occurs within the realm of first-order contrasts in integrated strength (12.7-13.3 log Pam in the Andean orogen vs. 13.5-13.9 log Pam in the forearc and the foreland). Specific conditions characterize the mechanically strong northern foreland of the Andes, where seismicity is likely explained by the effects of slab steepening.
Fluid flow in low-permeable carbonate rocks depends on the density of fractures, their interconnectivity and on the formation of fault damage zones. The present-day stress field influences the aperture hence the transmissivity of fractures whereas paleostress fields are responsible for the formation of faults and fractures. In low-permeable reservoir rocks, fault zones belong to the major targets. Before drilling, an estimate for reservoir productivity of wells drilled into the damage zone of faults is therefore required. Due to limitations in available data, a characterization of such reservoirs usually relies on the use of numerical techniques. The requirements of these mathematical models encompass a full integration of the actual fault geometry, comprising the dimension of the fault damage zone and of the fault core, and the individual population with properties of fault zones in the hanging and foot wall and the host rock. The paper presents both the technical approach to develop such a model and the property definition of heterogeneous fault zones and host rock with respect to the current stress field. The case study describes a deep geothermal reservoir in the western central Molasse Basin in southern Bavaria, Germany. Results from numerical simulations indicate that the well productivity can be enhanced along compressional fault zones if the interconnectivity of fractures is lateral caused by crossing synthetic and antithetic fractures. The model allows a deeper understanding of production tests and reservoir properties of faulted rocks.
The internal geological structure of the Northeast German Basin (NEGB) is affected by intense salt diapirism and by the presence of several stratified aquifer complexes of regional relevance. The shallow Quaternary to late Tertiary freshwater aquifer is separated from the underlying Mesozoic saline aquifers by an embedded Tertiary clay enriched aquitard (Rupelian Aquitard). An important feature of this aquitard is that hydraulic connections between the upper and lower aquifers do exist in areas where the Rupelian Aquitard is missing (hydrogeological windows). Three-dimensional thermohaline numerical simulations are carried out to investigate the effects of such hydrogeological windows in the Rupelian Aquitard on the resulting groundwater, temperature, and salinity distributions. Numerical results suggest that hydrogeological windows act as preferential domains of hydraulic interconnectivity between the different aquifers at depth and enable vigorous heat and mass transport which causes a mixing of warm and saline groundwater with cold and less saline groundwater within both aquifers. In areas where the Rupelian Aquitard confines the Mesozoic aquifer, dissolved solutes from major salt structures are transported laterally giving rise to plumes of variable salinity content ranging from few hundreds of meters to several tens of kilometers. Furthermore, destabilizing thermal buoyancy forces may overwhelm counteracting stabilizing salinity induced forces offside of salt domes. This may result in buoyant upward groundwater flow transporting heat and mass to shallower levels within the same Mesozoic Aquifer.
With this paper, we assess the present-day conductive thermal field of the Glueckstadt Graben in NW Germany that is characterized by large salt walls and diapirs structuring the graben fill. We use a finite element method to calculate the 3D steady-state conductive thermal field based on a lithosphere-scale 3D structural model that resolves the first-order structural characteristics of the graben and its underlying lithosphere. Model predictions are validated against measured temperatures in six deep wells. Our investigations show that the interaction of thickness distributions and thermal rock properties of the different geological layers is of major importance for the distribution of temperatures in the deep subsurface of the Glueckstadt Graben. However, the local temperatures may result from the superposed effects of different controlling factors. Especially, the upper sedimentary part of the model exhibits huge lateral temperature variations, which correlate spatially with the shape of the thermally highly conductive Permian salt layer. Variations in thickness and geometry of the salt cause two major effects, which provoke considerable lateral temperature variations for a given depth. (1) The "chimney effect" causes more efficient heat transport within salt diapirs. As a consequence positive thermal anomalies develop in the upper part and above salt structures, where the latter are covered by much less conductive sediments. In contrast, negative thermal anomalies are noticeable underneath salt structures. (2) The "thermal blanketing effect" is caused by thermally low conductive sediments that provoke the local storage of heat where these insulating sediments are present. The latter effect leads to both local and regional thermal anomalies. Locally, this translates to higher temperatures where salt margin synclines are filled with thick insulating clastic sediments. For the regional anomalies the cumulative insulating effects of the entire sediment fill results in a long-wavelength variation of temperatures in response to heat refraction effects caused by the contrast between insulating sediments and highly conductive crystalline crust. Finally, the longest wavelength of temperature variations is caused by the depth position of the isothermal lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary defining the regional variations of the overall geothermal gradient. We find that a conductive thermal model predicts observed temperatures reasonably well for five of the six available wells, whereas the steady-state conductive approach appears not to be valid for the sixth well.
The Kenya rift revisited
(2017)
We present three-dimensional (3-D) models that describe the present-day thermal and rheological state of the lithosphere of the greater Kenya rift region aiming at a better understanding of the rift evolution, with a particular focus on plume-lithosphere interactions. The key methodology applied is the 3-D integration of diverse geological and geophysical observations using gravity modelling. Accordingly, the resulting lithospheric-scale 3-D density model is consistent with (i) reviewed descriptions of lithological variations in the sedimentary and volcanic cover, (ii) known trends in crust and mantle seismic velocities as revealed by seismic and seismological data and (iii) the observed gravity field. This data-based model is the first to image a 3-D density configuration of the crystalline crust for the entire region of Kenya and northern Tanzania. An upper and a basal crustal layer are differentiated, each composed of several domains of different average densities. We interpret these domains to trace back to the Precambrian terrane amalgamation associated with the East African Orogeny and to magmatic processes during Mesozoic and Cenozoic rifting phases. In combination with seismic velocities, the densities of these crustal domains indicate compositional differences. The derived lithological trends have been used to parameterise steady-state thermal and rheological models. These models indicate that crustal and mantle temperatures decrease from the Kenya rift in the west to eastern Kenya, while the integrated strength of the lithosphere increases. Thereby, the detailed strength configuration appears strongly controlled by the complex inherited crustal structure, which may have been decisive for the onset, localisation and propagation of rifting.
Abstract. The aim of this study is to investigate the shallow thermal field differences for two differently aged passive continental margins by analyzing regional variations in geothermal gradient and exploring the controlling factors for these variations. Hence, we analyzed two previously published 3-D conductive and lithospheric-scale thermal models of the Southwest African and the Norwegian passive margins. These 3-D models differentiate various sedimentary, crustal, and mantle units and integrate different geophysical data such as seismic observations and the gravity field. We extracted the temperature–depth distributions in 1 km intervals down to 6 km below the upper thermal boundary condition. The geothermal gradient was then calculated for these intervals between the upper thermal boundary condition and the respective depth levels (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 km below the upper thermal boundary condition). According to our results, the geothermal gradient decreases with increasing depth and shows varying lateral trends and values for these two different margins. We compare the 3-D geological structural models and the geothermal gradient variations for both thermal models and show how radiogenic heat production, sediment insulating effect, and thermal lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB) depth influence the shallow thermal field pattern. The results indicate an ongoing process of oceanic mantle cooling at the young Norwegian margin compared with the old SW African passive margin that seems to be thermally equilibrated in the present day.
Abstract. The aim of this study is to investigate the shallow thermal field differences for two differently aged passive continental margins by analyzing regional variations in geothermal gradient and exploring the controlling factors for these variations. Hence, we analyzed two previously published 3-D conductive and lithospheric-scale thermal models of the Southwest African and the Norwegian passive margins. These 3-D models differentiate various sedimentary, crustal, and mantle units and integrate different geophysical data such as seismic observations and the gravity field. We extracted the temperature–depth distributions in 1 km intervals down to 6 km below the upper thermal boundary condition. The geothermal gradient was then calculated for these intervals between the upper thermal boundary condition and the respective depth levels (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 km below the upper thermal boundary condition). According to our results, the geothermal gradient decreases with increasing depth and shows varying lateral trends and values for these two different margins. We compare the 3-D geological structural models and the geothermal gradient variations for both thermal models and show how radiogenic heat production, sediment insulating effect, and thermal lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB) depth influence the shallow thermal field pattern. The results indicate an ongoing process of oceanic mantle cooling at the young Norwegian margin compared with the old SW African passive margin that seems to be thermally equilibrated in the present day.