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To investigate how preschoolers acquire a tool use strategy and how they adapt their tool use to a changed situation, 2- to 4-year-olds were asked to retrieve chips from a transparent box with a rod, either by stabbing and lifting through a top opening or by pushing through a front and a back opening. In both conditions, about 40% of the children acquired effective tool use by individual learning, and 90% of the other children learned this by observing only one demonstration. When confronted with a changed situation (i.e., previous opening covered, alternative opening uncovered), children perseverated with the recently learned, but now ineffective tool use strategy. Neither age nor acquisition type of the first strategy affected preschoolers' perseverations. Results indicate that prior tool use experiences have differential effects in situations that require either transferring known functions to novel objects or using a familiar tool for an alternative purpose.
In a longitudinal sample of Icelandic children (7.9-12-15 years; n=109) the developmental relations between of control beliefs (locus of control) and school achievement were examined on the background of child rearing practices, socialization conditions, and social class from childhood to adolescence. Results show that supportive and restrictive socialization conditions in social classes affect school achievement as well as the development of control beliefs. Supportive child rearing practices in upper class families encourage the development of internal control beliefs in adolescence, and are coincident with higher school achievement. On the other hand, restrictive child rearing practices appear independent of social class and generally hinder the development of internal control beliefs and positive school achievement. Results of a path model suggest a lagged relationship between school achievement and control beliefs. School achievement in childhood (ages 7 and 9) predicts internal control beliefs in adolescence.
Familiale Bedingungen von Ängstlichkeit und Depression und ihr Einfluß auf die kognitive Entwicklung
(1994)
Kognitive Entwicklung unter dem Risikofaktor Ängstlichkeit : Befunde einer longitudinalen Studie
(1996)
Beobachtungsinventar und Checkliste zur Erfassung der Qualität der praktischen Fahrschulausbildung
(2004)