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The experience of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) affects up to 90% of individuals with an active menstrual cycle and involves a spectrum of aversive physiological and psychological symptoms in the days leading up to menstruation (Tschudin et al., 2010). Despite its high prevalence, the precise origins of PMS remain elusive, with influences ranging from hormonal fluctuations to cognitive, social, and cultural factors (Hunter, 2007; Matsumoto et al., 2013).
Biologically, hormonal fluctuations, particularly in gonadal steroids, are commonly believed to be implicated in PMS, with the central factor being varying susceptibilities to the fluctuations between individuals and cycles (Rapkin & Akopians, 2012). Allopregnanolone (ALLO), a neuroactive steroid and progesterone metabolite, has emerged as a potential link to PMS symptoms (Hantsoo & Epperson, 2020). ALLO is a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, influencing inhibitory communication (Rupprecht, 2003; Andréen et al., 2006). Different susceptibility to ALLO fluctuations throughout the cycle may lead to reduced GABAergic signal transmission during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.
The GABAergic system's broad influence leads to a number of affected physiological systems, including a consistent reduction in vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) during the luteal phase (Schmalenberger et al., 2019). This reduction in vmHRV is more pronounced in individuals with high PMS symptoms (Baker et al., 2008; Matsumoto et al., 2007). Fear conditioning studies have shown inconsistent associations with cycle phases, suggesting a complex interplay between physiological parameters and PMS-related symptoms (Carpenter et al., 2022; Epperson et al., 2007; Milad et al., 2006).
The neurovisceral integration model posits that vmHRV reflects the capacity of the central autonomous network (CAN), which is responsible for regulatory processes on behavioral, cognitive, and autonomous levels (Thayer & Lane, 2000, 2009). Fear learning, mediated within the CAN, is suggested to be indicative of vmHRV's capacity for successful
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regulation (Battaglia & Thayer, 2022). Given the GABAergic mediation of central inhibitory functional connectivity in the CAN, which may be affected by ALLO fluctuations, this thesis proposes that fluctuating CAN activity in the luteal phase contributes to diverse aversive symptoms in PMS.
A research program was designed to empirically test these propositions. Study 1 investigated fear discrimination during different menstrual cycle phases and its interaction with vmHRV, revealing nuanced effects on acoustic startle response and skin conductance response. While there was heightened fear discrimination in acoustic startle responses in participants in the luteal phase, there was an interaction between menstrual cycle phase and vmHRV in skin conductance responses. In this measure, heightened fear discrimination during the luteal phase was only visible in individuals with high resting vmHRV; those with low vmHRV showed reduced fear discrimination and higher overall responses.
Despite affecting the vast majority of menstruating people, there are very limited tools available to reliably assess these symptoms in the German speaking area. Study 2 aimed at closing this gap, by translating and validating a German version of the short version of the Premenstrual Assessment Form (Allen et al., 1991), providing a reliable tool for future investigations, which closes the gap in PMS questionnaires in the German-speaking research area.
Study 3 employed a diary study paradigm to explore daily associations between vmHRV and PMS symptoms. The results showed clear simultaneous fluctuations between the two constructs with a peak in PMS and a low point in vmHRV a few days before menstruation onset. The association between vmHRV and PMS was driven by psychological PMS symptoms.
Based on the theoretical considerations regarding the neurovisceral perspective on PMS, another interesting construct to consider is attentional control, as it is closely related to functions of the CAN. Study 4 delved into attentional control and vmHRV differences between menstrual cycle phases, demonstrating an interaction between cycle phase and PMS symptoms. In a pilot, we found reduced vmHRV and attentional control during the luteal phase only in participants who reported strong PMS.
While Studies 1-4 provided evidence for the mechanisms underlying PMS, Studies 5 and 6 investigated short- and long-term intervention protocols to ameliorate PMS symptomatology. Study 5 explored the potential of heart rate variability biofeedback (HRVB) in alleviating PMS symptoms and a number of other outcome measures. In a waitlist-control design, participants underwent a 4-week smartphone-based HRVB intervention. The results revealed positive effects on PMS, with larger effect sizes on psychological symptoms, as well as on depressive symptoms, anxiety/stress and attentional control.
Finally, Study 6 examined the acute effects of HRVB on attentional control. The study found positive impact but only in highly stressed individuals.
The thesis, based on this comprehensive research program, expands our understanding of PMS as an outcome of CAN fluctuations mediated by GABAA receptor reactivity. The results largely support the model. These findings not only deepen our understanding of PMS but also offer potential avenues for therapeutic interventions. The promising results of smartphone-based HRVB training suggest a non-pharmacological approach to managing PMS symptoms, although further research is needed to confirm its efficacy.
In conclusion, this thesis illuminates the complex web of factors contributing to PMS, providing valuable insights into its etiological underpinnings and potential interventions. By elucidating the relationships between hormonal fluctuations, CAN activity, and psychological responses, this research contributes to more effective treatments for individuals grappling with the challenges of PMS. The findings hold promise for improving the quality of life for those affected by this prevalent and often debilitating condition.
Mindful Eating
(2024)
Maladaptive eating behaviors such as emotional eating, external eating, and loss-of-control eating are widespread in the general population. Moreover, they are associated to adverse health outcomes and well-known for their role in the development and maintenance of eating disorders and obesity (i.e., eating and weight disorders). Eating and weight disorders are associated with crucial burden for individuals as well as high costs for society in general. At the same time, corresponding treatments yield poor outcomes. Thus, innovative concepts are needed to improve prevention and treatment of these conditions.
The Buddhist concept of mindfulness (i.e., paying attention to the present moment without judgement) and its delivery via mindfulness-based intervention programs (MBPs) has gained wide popularity in the area of maladaptive eating behaviors and associated eating and weight disorders over the last two decades. Though previous findings on their effects seem promising, the current assessment of mindfulness and its mere application via multi-component MBPs hampers to draw conclusions on the extent to which mindfulness-immanent qualities actually account for the effects (e.g., the modification of maladaptive eating behaviors). However, this knowledge is pivotal for interpreting previous effects correctly and for avoiding to cause harm in particularly vulnerable groups such as those with eating and weight disorders.
To address these shortcomings, recent research has focused on the context-specific approach of mindful eating (ME) to investigate underlying mechanisms of action. ME can be considered a subdomain of generic mindfulness describing it specifically in relation to the process of eating and associated feelings, thoughts, and motives, thus including a variety of different attitudes and behaviors. However, there is no universal operationalization and the current assessment of ME suffers from different limitations. Specifically, current measurement instruments are not suited for a comprehensive assessment of the multiple facets of the construct that are currently discussed as important in the literature. This in turn hampers comparisons of different ME facets which would allow to evaluate their particular effect on maladaptive eating behaviors. This knowledge is needed to tailor prevention and treatment of associated eating and weight disorders properly and to explore potential underlying mechanisms of action which have so far been proposed mainly on theoretical grounds.
The dissertation at hand aims to provide evidence-based fundamental research that contributes to our understanding of how mindfulness, more specifically its context-specific form of ME, impacts maladaptive eating behaviors and, consequently, how it could be used appropriately to enrich the current prevention and treatment approaches for eating and weight disorders in the future.
Specifically, in this thesis, three scientific manuscripts applying several qualitative and quantitative techniques in four sequential studies are presented. These manuscripts were published in or submitted to three scientific peer-reviewed journals to shed light on the following questions:
I. How can ME be measured comprehensively and in a reliable and valid way to advance the understanding of how mindfulness works in the context of eating?
II. Does the context-specific construct of ME have an advantage over the generic concept in advancing the understanding of how mindfulness is related to maladaptive eating behaviors?
III. Which ME facets are particularly useful in explaining maladaptive eating behaviors?
IV. Does training a particular ME facet result in changes in maladaptive eating behaviors?
To answer the first research question (Paper 1), a multi-method approach using three subsequent studies was applied to develop and validate a comprehensive self-report instrument to assess the multidimensional construct of ME - the Mindful Eating Inventory (MEI). Study 1 aimed to create an initial version of the MEI by following a three-step approach: First, a comprehensive item pool was compiled by including selected and adapted items of the existing ME questionnaires and supplementing them with items derived from an extensive literature review. Second, the preliminary item pool was complemented and checked for content validity by experts in the field of eating behavior and/or mindfulness (N = 15). Third, the item pool was further refined through qualitative methods: Three focus groups comprising laypersons (N = 16) were used as a check for applicability. Subsequently, think-aloud protocols (N = 10) served as a last check of comprehensibility and elimination of ambiguities.
The resulting initial MEI version was tested in Study 2 in an online convenience sample (N = 828) to explore its factor structure using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Results were used to shorten the questionnaire in accordance with qualitative and quantitative criteria yielding the final MEI version which encompasses 30 items. These items were assigned to seven ME facets: (1) ‘Accepting and Non-attached Attitude towards one’s own eating experience’ (ANA), (2) ‘Awareness of Senses while Eating’ (ASE), (3) ‘Eating in Response to awareness of Fullness‘ (ERF), (4) ‘Awareness of eating Triggers and Motives’ (ATM), (5) ‘Interconnectedness’ (CON), (6) ‘Non-Reactive Stance’ (NRS) and (7) Focused Attention on Eating’ (FAE).
Study 3 sought to confirm the found facets and the corresponding factor structure in an independent online convenience sample (N = 612) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The study served as further indication of the assumed multidimensionality of ME (the correlational seven-factor model was shown to be superior to a single-factor model). Psychometric properties of the MEI, regarding factorial validity, internal consistency, retest-reliability, and observed criterion validity using a wide range of eating-specific and general health-related outcomes, showed the inventory to be suitable for a comprehensive, reliable and valid assessment of ME. These findings were complemented by demonstrating measurement invariance of the MEI regarding gender. In accordance with the factor structure of the MEI, Paper 1 offers an empirically-derived definition of ME, succeeding in overcoming ambiguities and problems of previous attempts at defining the construct.
To answer the second and third research questions (Paper 2) a subsample of Study 2 from the MEI validation studies (N = 292) was analyzed. Incremental validity of ME beyond generic mindfulness was shown using hierarchical regression models concerning the outcome variables of maladaptive eating behaviors (emotional eating and uncontrolled eating) and nutrition behaviors (consumption of energy-dense food). Multiple regression analyses were applied to investigate the impact of the seven different ME facets (identified in Paper 1) on the same outcome variables. The following ME facets significantly contributed to explaining variance in maladaptive eating and nutrition behaviors: Accepting and Non-attached Attitude towards one`s own eating experience (ANA), Eating in Response to awareness of Fullness (ERF), the Awareness of eating Triggers and Motives (ATM), and a Non-Reactive Stance (NRS, i.e., an observing, non-impulsive attitude towards eating triggers). Results suggest that these ME facets are promising variables to consider when a) investigating potential underlying mechanisms of mindfulness and MBPs in the context of eating and b) addressing maladaptive eating behaviors in general as well as in the prevention and treatment of eating and weight disorders.
To answer the fourth research question (Paper 3), a training on an isolated exercise (‘9 Hunger’) based on the previously identified ME facet ATM was designed to explore its particular association with changes in maladaptive eating behaviors and thus to preliminary explore one possible mechanism of action. The online study was realized using a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. Latent Change Scores (LCS) across three measurement points (before the training, directly after the training and three months later) were compared between the intervention group (n = 211) and a waitlist control group (n = 188). Short- and longer-term effects of the training could be shown on maladaptive eating behaviors (emotional eating, external eating, loss-of-control eating) and associated outcomes (intuitive eating, ME, self-compassion, well-being). Findings serve as preliminary empirical evidence that MBPs might influence maladaptive eating behaviors through an enhanced non-judgmental awareness of and distinguishment between eating motives and triggers (i.e., ATM). This mechanism of action had previously only been hypothesized from a theoretical perspective. Since maladaptive eating behaviors are associated with eating and weight disorders, the findings can enhance our understanding of the general effects of MBPs on these conditions.
The integration of the different findings leads to several suggestions of how ME might enrich different kinds of future interventions on maladaptive eating behaviors to improve health in general or the prevention and treatment of eating and weight disorders in particular. Strengths of the thesis (e.g., deliberate specific methodology, variety of designs and methods, high number of participants) are emphasized. The main limitations particularly regarding sample characteristics (e.g., higher level of formal education, fewer males, self-selected) are discussed to arrive at an outline for future studies (e.g., including multi-modal-multi-method approaches, clinical eating disorder samples and youth samples) to improve upcoming research on ME and underlying mechanisms of action of MBPs for maladaptive eating behaviors and associated eating and weight disorders.
This thesis enriches current research on mindfulness in the context of eating by providing fundamental research on the core of the ME construct. Thereby it delivers a reliable and valid instrument to comprehensively assess ME in future studies as well as an operational definition of the construct. Findings on ME facet level might inform upcoming research and practice on how to address maladaptive eating behaviors appropriately in interventions. The ME skill ‘Awareness of eating Triggers and Motives (ATM)’ as one particular mechanism of action should be further investigated in representative community and specific clinical samples to examine the validity of the results in these groups and to justify an application of the concept to the general population as well as to subgroups with eating and weight disorders in particular.
In conclusion, findings of the current thesis can be used to set future research on mindfulness, more specifically ME, and its underlying mechanism in the context of eating on a more evidence-based footing. This knowledge can inform upcoming prevention and treatment to tailor MBPs on maladaptive eating behaviors and associated eating and weight disorders appropriately.
Traditionally, mental disorders have been identified based on specific symptoms and standardized diagnostic systems such as the DSM-5 and ICD-10. However, these symptom-based definitions may only partially represent neurobiological and behavioral research findings, which could impede the development of targeted treatments. A transdiagnostic approach to mental health research, such as the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) approach, maps resilience and broader aspects of mental health to associated components. By investigating mental disorders in a transnosological way, we can better understand disease patterns and their distinguishing and common factors, leading to more precise prevention and treatment options.
Therefore, this dissertation focuses on (1) the latent domain structure of the RDoC approach in a transnosological sample including healthy controls, (2) its domain associations to disease severity in patients with anxiety and depressive disorders, and (3) an overview of the scientific results found regarding Positive (PVS) and Negative Valence Systems (NVS) associated with mood and anxiety disorders.
The following main results were found: First, the latent RDoC domain structure for PVS and NVS, Cognitive Systems (CS), and Social Processes (SP) could be validated using self-report and behavioral measures in a transnosological sample. Second, we found transdiagnostic and disease-specific associations between those four domains and disease severity in patients with depressive and anxiety disorders. Third, the scoping review showed a sizable amount of RDoC research conducted on PVS and NVS in mood and anxiety disorders, with research gaps for both domains and specific conditions.
In conclusion, the research presented in this dissertation highlights the potential of the transnosological RDoC framework approach in improving our understanding of mental disorders. By exploring the latent RDoC structure and associations with disease severity and disease-specific and transnosological associations for anxiety and depressive disorders, this research provides valuable insights into the full spectrum of psychological functioning. Additionally, this dissertation highlights the need for further research in this area, identifying both RDoC indicators and research gaps. Overall, this dissertation represents an important contribution to the ongoing efforts to improve our understanding and the treatment of mental disorders, particularly within the commonly comorbid disease spectrum of mood and anxiety disorders.
Background: The concept self-compassion (SC), a special way of being compassionate with oneself while dealing with stressful life circumstances, has attracted increasing attention in research over the past two decades. Research has already shown that SC has beneficial effects on affective well-being and other mental health outcomes. However, little is known in which ways SC might facilitate our affective well-being in stressful situations. Hence, a central concern of this dissertation was to focus on the question which underlying processes might influence the link between SC and affective well-being. Two established components in stress processing, which might also play an important role in this context, could be the amount of experienced stress and the way of coping with a stressor. Thus, using a multi-method approach, this dissertation aimed at finding to which extent SC might help to alleviate the experienced stress and promotes the use of more salutary coping, while dealing with stressful circumstances. These processes might ultimately help improve one’s affective well-being. Derived from that, it was hypothesized that more SC is linked to less perceived stress and intensified use of salutary coping responses. Additionally, it was suggested that perceived stress and coping mediate the relation between SC and affective well-being.
Method: The research questions were targeted in three single studies and one meta-study. To test my assumptions about the relations of SC and coping in particular, a systematic literature search was conducted resulting in k = 136 samples with an overall sample size of N = 38,913. To integrate the z-transformed Pearson correlation coefficients, random-effects models were calculated. All hypotheses were tested with a three-wave cross-lagged design in two short-term longitudinal online studies assessing SC, perceived stress and coping responses in all waves. The first study explored the assumptions in a student sample (N = 684) with a mean age of 27.91 years over a six-week period, whereas the measurements were implemented in the GESIS Panel (N = 2934) with a mean age of 52.76 years analyzing the hypotheses in a populationbased sample across eight weeks. Finally, an ambulatory assessment study was designed to expand the findings of the longitudinal studies to the intraindividual level. Thus, a sample of 213 participants completed questionnaires of momentary SC, perceived stress, engagement and disengagement coping, and affective well-being on their smartphones three times per day over seven consecutive days. The data was processed using 1-1-1 multilevel mediation analyses.
Results: Results of the meta-analysis indicated that higher SC is significantly associated with more use of engagement coping and less use of disengagement coping. Considering the relations between SC and stress processing variables in all three single studies, cross-lagged paths from the longitudinal data, as well as multilevel modeling paths from the ambulatory assessment data indicated a notable relation between all relevant stress variables. As expected, results showed a significant negative relation between SC and perceived stress and disengagement coping, as well as a positive connection with engagement coping responses at the dispositional and intra-individual level. However, considering the mediational hypothesis, the most promising pathway in the link between SC and affective well-being turned out to be perceived stress in all three studies, while effects of the mediational pathways through coping responses were less robust.
Conclusion: Thus, a more self-compassionate attitude and higher momentary SC, when needed in specific situations, can help to engage in effective stress processing. Considering the underlying mechanisms in the link between SC and affective well-being, stress perception in particular seemed to be the most promising candidate for enhancing affective well-being at the dispositional and at the intraindividual level. Future research should explore the pathways between SC and affective well-being in specific contexts and samples, and also take into account additional influential factors.
The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the developmental dynamics between interest, motivation, and learning strategy use during physics learning. The target population was lower secondary school students from a developing country, given that there is hardly in research that studies the above domain-specific concepts in the context of developing countries. The aim was addressed in four parts.
The first part of the study was guided by three objectives: (a) to adapt and validate the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ-II) for the Ugandan context; (b) to examine whether there are significant differences in motivation for learning Physics with respect to students’ gender; and (c) to establish the extent to which students’ interest predicts their motivation to learn Physics. Being a pilot study, the sample comprised 374 randomly selected students from five schools in central Uganda who responded to anonymous questionnaires that included scales from the SMQ-II and the Individual Interest Questionnaire. Data were analysed using confirmatory factor analyses, t-tests and structural equation modelling in SPSS-25 and Mplus-8. The five-factor model solution of the SMQ-II fitted adequately with the study data, with deletion of one item. The modified SMQ-II exhibited invariant factor loadings and intercepts (i.e., strong measurement invariance) when administered to boys and girls. Furthermore, on assessing whether motivation for learning Physics varied with gender, no significant differences were noted. On assessing the predictive effects of individual interest on students’ motivation, individual interest significantly predicted all motivational constructs, with stronger predictive strength on students’ self-efficacy and self-determination in learning Physics.
In the second part whilst using comprised 934 Grade 9 students from eight secondary schools in Uganda, Latent profile analysis (LPA) - a person-centred approach was used to investigate motivation patterns that exist in lower secondary school students during physics learning. A three-step approach to LPA was used to answer three research questions: RQ1, which profiles of secondary school students exist with regards to their motivation for Physics learning; RQ2, are there differences in students’ cognitive learning strategies in the identified profiles; and RQ3, does students’ gender, attitudes, and individual interest predict membership in these profiles? Six motivational profiles were identified: (i) low-quantity motivation profile (101 students; 10.8%); (ii) moderate-quantity motivation profile (246 students; 26.3%); (iii) high-quantity motivation profile (365 students; 39.1%); (iv) primarily intrinsically motivated profile (60 students,6.4%); (v) mostly extrinsically motivated profile (88 students, 9.4%); and (vi) grade-introjected profile (74 students, 7.9%). Low-quantity and grade introjected motivated students mostly used surface learning strategies whilst the high-quantity and primarily intrinsically motivated students used deep learning strategies. On examining the predictive effect of gender, individual interest, and students’ attitudes on the profile membership, unlike gender, individual interest and students’ attitudes towards Physics learning strongly predicted profile membership.
In the third part of the study, the occurrence of different secondary school learner profiles depending on their various combinations of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategy use, as well as their differences in perceived autonomy support, intrinsic motivation, and gender was examined. Data were collected from 576 9th grade student. Four learner profiles were identified: competent strategy user, struggling user, surface-level learner, and deep-level learner profiles. Gender differences were noted in students’ use of elaboration and organization strategies to learn Physics, in favour of girls. In terms of profile memberships, significant differences in gender, intrinsic motivation and perceived autonomy support were also noted. Girls were 2.4 - 2.7 times more likely than boys to be members of the competent strategy user and surface-level learner profiles. Additionally, higher levels of intrinsic motivation predicted an increased likelihood membership into the deep-level learner profile, whilst higher levels of perceived teacher autonomy predicted an increased likelihood membership into the competent strategy user profile as compared to other profiles.
Lastly, in the fourth part, changes in secondary school students’ physics motivation and cognitive learning strategies use during physics learning across time were examined. Two waves of data were collected from initially 954 9th students through to their 10th grade. A three-step approach to Latent transition analysis was used. Generally, students’ motivation decreased from 9th to 10th grade. Qualitative students’ motivation profiles indicated strong with-in person stability whilst the quantitative profiles were relatively less stable. Mostly, students moved from the high quantity motivation profile to the extrinsically motivated profiles. On the other hand, the cognitive learning strategies use profiles were moderately stable; with higher with-in person stability in the deep-level learner profile. None of the struggling users and surface-level learners transitioned into the deep-level learners’ profile. Additionally, students who perceived increased support for autonomy from their teachers had higher membership likelihood into the competent users’ profiles whilst those with an increase in individual interest score had higher membership likelihood into the deep-level learner profile.
An exploration of activity and therapist preferences and their predictors in German-speaking samples
(2023)
According to current definitions of evidence-based practice, patients’ preferences play an important role for the psychotherapeutic process and outcomes. However, whereas a significant body of research investigated preferences regarding specific treatments, research on preferred activities or therapist characteristics is rare, investigated heterogeneous aspects with inconclusive results, lacked validated assessment tools, and neglected relevant preferences, their predictors as well as the perspective of mental health professionals. Therefore, the three studies of this dissertation aimed to address the most fundamental drawbacks in current preference research by providing a validated questionnaire, focus efforts on activity and therapist preferences and add preferences of psychotherapy trainees. To this end, Paper I reports the translation and validation of the 18-item Cooper-Norcross Inventory of Preference (C-NIP) in a broad, heterogeneous sample of N = 969 laypeople, resulting in good to acceptable reliabilities and first evidence of validity. However, the original factor structure was not replicated. Paper II assesses activity preferences of psychotherapists in training using the C-NIP and compares them with the initial laypeople sample. There were significant differences between both samples, with trainees preferring a more patient-directed, emotionally intense and confrontational approach than laypeople. CBT trainees preferred a more therapist-directed, present-focused, challenging and less emotional intense approach than psychodynamic or -analytic trainees. Paper III explores therapist preferences and tests predictors for specific preference choices. For most characteristics, more than half of the participants did not have specific preferences. Results pointed towards congruency effects (i.e., preference for similar characteristics), especially for members of marginalized groups. The dissertation provides both researchers and practitioners with a validated questionnaire, shows potentially obstructive differences between patients and therapists and underlines the importance of therapist characteristics for marginalized groups, thereby laying the foundation for future applications and implementations in research and practice.
Visual perception is a complex and dynamic process that plays a crucial role in how we perceive and interact with the world. The eyes move in a sequence of saccades and fixations, actively modulating perception by moving different parts of the visual world into focus. Eye movement behavior can therefore offer rich insights into the underlying cognitive mechanisms and decision processes. Computational models in combination with a rigorous statistical framework are critical for advancing our understanding in this field, facilitating the testing of theory-driven predictions and accounting for observed data. In this thesis, I investigate eye movement behavior through the development of two mechanistic, generative, and theory-driven models. The first model is based on experimental research regarding the distribution of attention, particularly around the time of a saccade, and explains statistical characteristics of scan paths. The second model implements a self-avoiding random walk within a confining potential to represent the microscopic fixational drift, which is present even while the eye is at rest, and investigates the relationship to microsaccades. Both models are implemented in a likelihood-based framework, which supports the use of data assimilation methods to perform Bayesian parameter inference at the level of individual participants, analyses of the marginal posteriors of the interpretable parameters, model comparisons, and posterior predictive checks. The application of these methods enables a thorough investigation of individual variability in the space of parameters. Results show that dynamical modeling and the data assimilation framework are highly suitable for eye movement research and, more generally, for cognitive modeling.
Justice structures societies and social relations of any kind; its psychological integration provides a fundamental cornerstone for social, moral, and personality development. The trait justice sensitivity captures individual differences in responses toward perceived injustice (JS; Schmitt et al., 2005, 2010). JS has shown substantial relations to social and moral behavior in adult and adolescent samples; however, it was not yet investigated in middle childhood despite this being a sensitive phase for personality development. JS differentiates in underlying perspectives that are either more self- or other-oriented regarding injustice, with diverging outcome relations. The present research project investigated JS and its perspectives in children aged 6 to 12 years with a special focus on variables of social and moral development as potential correlates and outcomes in four cross-sectional studies. Study 1 started with a closer investigation of JS trait manifestation, measurement, and relations to important variables from the nomological network, such as temperamental dimensions, social-cognitive skills, and global pro- and antisocial behavior in a pilot sample of children from south Germany. Study 2 investigated relations between JS and distributive behavior following distributive principles in a large-scale data set of children from Berlin and Brandenburg. Study 3 explored the relations of JS with moral reasoning, moral emotions, and moral identity as important precursors of moral development in the same large-scale data set. Study 4 investigated punishment motivation to even out, prevent, or compensate norm transgressions in a subsample, whereby JS was considered as a potential predictor of different punishment motives. All studies indicated that a large-scale, economic measurement of JS is possible at least from middle childhood onward. JS showed relations to temperamental dimensions, social skills, global social behavior; distributive decisions and preferences for distributive principles; moral reasoning, emotions, and identity; as well as with punishment motivation; indicating that trait JS is highly relevant for social and moral development. The underlying self- or other-oriented perspectives showed diverging correlate and outcome relations mostly in line with theory and previous findings from adolescent and adult samples, but also provided new theoretical ideas on the construct and its differentiation. Findings point to an early internal justice motive underlying trait JS, but additional motivations underlying the JS perspectives. Caregivers, educators, and clinical psychologists should pay attention to children’s JS and toward promoting an adaptive justice-related personality development to foster children’s prosocial and moral development as well as their mental health.
It has frequently been observed that single emotional events are not only more efficiently processed, but also better remembered, and form longer-lasting memory traces than neutral material. However, when emotional information is perceived as a part of a complex event, such as in the context of or in relation to other events and/or source details, the modulatory effects of emotion are less clear. The present work aims to investigate how emotional, contextual source information modulates the initial encoding and subsequent long-term retrieval of associated neutral material (item memory) and contextual source details (contextual source memory). To do so, a two-task experiment was used, consisting of an incidental encoding task in which neutral objects were displayed over different contextual background scenes which varied in emotional content (unpleasant, pleasant, and neutral), and a delayed retrieval task (1 week), in which previously-encoded objects and new ones were presented. In a series of studies, behavioral indices (Studies 2, 3, and 5), event-related potentials (ERPs; Studies 1-4), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (Study 5) were used to investigate whether emotional contexts can rapidly tune the visual processing of associated neutral information (Study 1) and modulate long-term item memory (Study 2), how different recognition memory processes (familiarity vs. recollection) contribute to these emotion effects on item and contextual source memory (Study 3), whether the emotional effects of item memory can also be observed during spontaneous retrieval (Sstudy 4), and which brain regions underpin the modulatory effects of emotional contexts on item and contextual source memory (Study 5). In Study 1, it was observed that emotional contexts by means of emotional associative learning, can rapidly alter the processing of associated neutral information. Neutral items associated with emotional contexts (i.e. emotional associates) compared to neutral ones, showed enhanced perceptual and more elaborate processing after one single pairing, as indexed by larger amplitudes in the P100 and LPP components, respectively. Study 2 showed that emotional contexts produce longer-lasting memory effects, as evidenced by better item memory performance and larger ERP Old/New differences for emotional associates. In Study 3, a mnemonic differentiation was observed between item and contextual source memory which was modulated by emotion. Item memory was driven by familiarity, independently of emotional contexts during encoding, whereas contextual source memory was driven by recollection, and better for emotional material. As in Study 2, enhancing effects of emotional contexts for item memory were observed in ERPs associated with recollection processes. Likewise, for contextual source memory, a pronounced recollection-related ERP enhancement was observed for exclusively emotional contexts. Study 4 showed that the long-term recollection enhancement of emotional contexts on item memory can be observed even when retrieval is not explicitly attempted, as measured with ERPs, suggesting that the emotion enhancing effects on memory are not related to the task embedded during recognition, but to the motivational relevance of the triggering event. In Study 5, it was observed that enhancing effects of emotional contexts on item and contextual source memory involve stronger engagement of the brain's regions which are associated with memory recollection, including areas of the medial temporal lobe, posterior parietal cortex, and prefrontal cortex.
Taken together, these findings suggest that emotional contexts rapidly modulate the initial processing of associated neutral information and the subsequent, long-term item and contextual source memories. The enhanced memory effects of emotional contexts are strongly supported by recollection rather than familiarity processes, and are shown to be triggered when retrieval is both explicitly and spontaneously attempted. These results provide new insights into the modulatory role of emotional information on the visual processing and the long-term recognition memory of complex events. The present findings are integrated into the current theoretical models and future ventures are discussed.
Many children struggle with reading for comprehension. Reading is a complex cognitive task depending on various sub-tasks, such as word decoding and building connections across sentences. The task of connecting sentences is guided by referential expressions. References, such as anaphoric noun phrases (Minky/the cat) or pronouns (Minky/she), signal to the reader how the protagonists of adjacent sentences are connected. Readers construct a coherent mental model of the text by resolving these references. Personal pronouns (he/she) in particular need to be resolved towards an appropriate antecedent before they can be fully understood. Pronoun resolution therefore is vital for successful text comprehension. The present thesis investigated children’s resolution of personal pronouns during natural reading as a possible source of reading comprehension difficulty. Three eye tracking studies investigated whether children aged 8-9 (Grade 3-4) resolve pronouns online during reading and how the varying information around the pronoun region influences children’s eye movement behavior.
The first study investigated whether children prefer a pronoun over a noun phrase when the antecedent is highly accessible. Children read three-sentence stories that introduced a protagonist (Mia) in the first sentence and a reference to this protagonist in one of the following sentences using either a repeated name (Mia) or a pronoun (she). For proficient readers, it was repeatedly shown that there is a preference for a pronoun over the name in these contexts, i.e., when the antecedent is salient. The first study tested the repeated name penalty effect in children using eye tracking. It was hypothesized that in contrast to proficient readers, the fluency of children’s reading processing profits from an overlapping word form (i.e., the repeated noun phrase) compared to a pronoun. This is because overlapping word forms allow for direct mapping, whereas pronouns have to be resolved towards their antecedent first.
The second study investigated children’s online processing of pronominal gender in a mismatch paradigm. Children read sentences in which the pronoun either was a gender-match to the antecedent or a gender-mismatch. Reading skill and reading fluency were also tested and related to children’s ability to detect a mismatching pronoun during reading.
The third study investigated the online processing of gender information on the pronoun and whether disambiguating gender information improves the accuracy of pronoun comprehension. Offline comprehension accuracy, that is the comprehension of the pronoun, was related to children’s online eye movement behavior. This study was conducted in a semi-longitudinal paradigm: 70 children were tested in Grade 3 (age 8) and again in Grade 4 (age 9) to investigate effects of age and reading skill on pronoun processing and comprehension.
The results of this thesis clearly show that children aged 8-9, when they are in the second half of primary school, struggle with the comprehension of pronouns in reading tasks. The responses to pronoun comprehension questions revealed that children have difficulties with the comprehension of a pronoun in the absence of a disambiguating gender cue, that is when they have to apply context information. When there is a gender cue to disambiguate the pronoun, children’s accuracy improves significantly. This is true for children in Grade 3, but also in Grade 4, albeit their overall resolution accuracy slightly improves with age.
The results from the analyses of eye movements suggest that the discourse accessibility of an antecedent does play a role in children’s processing of pronouns and repeated names. The repetition of a name does not facilitate children’s reading processing like it was anticipated. Similar to adults, children showed a penalty effect for the repeated name where a pronoun is expected. However, this does not mean that children’s processing of pronouns is always adult-like. The results from eye movement analyses in the pronoun region during sentence reading revealed significant individual differences related to children’s individual reading skill and reading fluency.
The results from the mismatch study revealed that reading fluency is associated with children’s detection of incongruent pronouns. All children had longer gaze durations at mismatching than matching pronouns, but only fluent readers among the children followed this up with a regression out of the pronoun region. This was interpreted as an attempt to gain processing time and “repair” the inconsistency. Reading fluency was therefore associated with detection of the mismatch, while less fluent readers did not see any mismatch between pronoun and antecedent. The eye movement pattern of the “detectors” is more adult-like and was interpreted as reflecting successful monitoring and attempted pronoun resolution.
Children differ considerably in their reading comprehension skill. The results of this thesis show that only skilled readers among the children use gender information online for pronoun resolution. They took more time to read the pronoun when there was disambiguating gender information that was useful to resolve the pronoun, in contrast to the less skilled readers. Age was a less important factor in pronoun resolution processes and comprehension than were reading skill and reading fluency. Taken together, this suggests that the good readers direct cognitive resources towards pronoun resolution when the pronoun can be resolved, which is a successful comprehension strategy. Moreover, there was evidence that reading skill is a relevant factor in this task but not age.
The contribution of the present thesis is a depiction of the specific eye movement patterns that are related to successful and unsuccessful attempts at pronoun resolution in children. Eye movement behavior in the pronoun area is related to children’s reading skill and fluency. The results of this thesis suggest that many children do not resolve pronouns spontaneously during sentence reading, which is likely detrimental to their reading comprehension in more complex reading materials. The present thesis informs our understanding of the challenge that pronoun resolution poses for beginning readers, and gives new impulses for the study of higher-order reading processes in children’s natural reading.