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Objective
Leaders differ in their personalities from non-leaders. However, when do these differences emerge? Are leaders "born to be leaders" or does their personality change in preparation for a leadership role and due to increasing leadership experience?
Method
Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study, we examined personality differences between leaders (N = 2683 leaders, women: n = 967; 36.04%) and non-leaders (N = 33,663) as well as personality changes before and after becoming a leader.
Results
Already in the years before starting a leadership position, leaders-to-be were more extraverted, open, emotionally stable, conscientious, and willing to take risks, felt to have greater control, and trusted others more than non-leaders. Moreover, personality changed in emergent leaders: While approaching a leadership position, leaders-to-be (especially men) became gradually more extraverted, open, and willing to take risks and felt to have more control over their life. After becoming a leader, they became less extraverted, less willing to take risks, and less conscientious but gained self-esteem.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that people are not simply "born to be leaders" but that their personalities change considerably in preparation for a leadership role and due to leadership experience. Some changes are transient, but others last for a long time.
Intuitively, strongly constraining contexts should lead to stronger probabilistic representations of sentences in memory. Encountering unexpected words could therefore be expected to trigger costlier shifts in these representations than expected words. However, psycholinguistic measures commonly used to study probabilistic processing, such as the N400 event-related potential (ERP) component, are sensitive to word predictability but not to contextual constraint. Some research suggests that constraint-related processing cost may be measurable via an ERP positivity following the N400, known as the anterior post-N400 positivity (PNP). The PNP is argued to reflect update of a sentence representation and to be distinct from the posterior P600, which reflects conflict detection and reanalysis. However, constraint-related PNP findings are inconsistent. We sought to conceptually replicate Federmeier et al. (2007) and Kuperberg et al. (2020), who observed that the PNP, but not the N400 or the P600, was affected by constraint at unexpected but plausible words. Using a pre-registered design and statistical approach maximising power, we demonstrated a dissociated effect of predictability and constraint: strong evidence for predictability but not constraint in the N400 window, and strong evidence for constraint but not predictability in the later window. However, the constraint effect was consistent with a P600 and not a PNP, suggesting increased conflict between a strong representation and unexpected input rather than greater update of the representation. We conclude that either a simple strong/weak constraint design is not always sufficient to elicit the PNP, or that previous PNP constraint findings could be an artifact of smaller sample size.
Introduction:
Decision making results not only from logical analyses, but seems to be further guided by the ability to perceive somatic information (interoceptive accuracy). Relations between interoceptive accuracy and decision making have been exclusively studied in adults and with regard to complex, uncertain situations (as measured by the Iowa Gambling Task, IGT).
Methods:
In the present study, 1454 children (6-11 years) were examined at two time points (approximately 1 year apart) using an IGT as well as a delay-of-gratification task for sweets-items and toy-items. Interoceptive accuracy was measured using a child-adapted version of the Heartbeat Perception Task.
Results:
The present results revealed that children with higher, as compared to lower, interoceptive accuracy showed more advantageous choices in the IGT and delayed more sweets-items, but not toy-items, in a delay-of-gratification task at time point 2 but not at time point 1. However, no longitudinal relation between interoceptive accuracy and decision making 1 year later could be shown.
Discussion:
Results indicate that interoceptive accuracy relates to decision-making abilities in situations of varying complexity already in middle childhood, and that this link might consolidate across the examined 1-year period. Furthermore, the association of interoceptive accuracy and the delay of sweets-items might have implications for the regulation of body weight at a later age.
Background
Benefit finding, defined as perceiving positive life changes resulting from adversity and negative life stressors, gains growing attention in the context of chronic illness. The study aimed at examining the psychometric properties of the Benefit Finding Scale for Children (BFSC) in a sample of German youth facing chronic conditions.
Methods
A sample of adolescents with various chronic conditions (N = 304; 12 – 21years) completed the 10-item BFSC along with measures of intra- and interpersonal resources, coping strategies, and health-related quality of life (hrQoL). The total sample was randomly divided into two subsamples for conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA/CFA).
Results
EFA revealed that the BFSC scores had a one-dimensional factor structure. CFA verified the one-dimensional factor structure with an acceptable fit. The BFSC exhibited acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.87 – 0.88) and construct validity. In line with our hypotheses, benefit finding was positively correlated with optimism, self-esteem, self-efficacy, sense of coherence, and support seeking. There were no correlations with avoidance, wishful thinking, emotional reaction, and hrQoL. Sex differences in benefit finding were not consistent across subsamples. Benefit finding was also positively associated with age, disease severity, and social status.
Conclusions
The BFSC is a psychometrically sound instrument to assess benefit finding in adolescents with chronic illness and may facilitate further research on positive adaptation processes in adolescents, irrespective of their specific diagnosis.
Simply too much
(2022)
Purpose Weight bias internalization (WBI) is associated with negative health consequences such as eating disorders and psychosocial problems in children. To date, it is unknown to what extent WBI considerably raises the risk of negative outcomes. Methods Analyses are based on cross-sectional data of 1,061 children (9-13 years, M = 11, SD = 0.9; 52.1% female) who filled in the WBI scale (WBIS-C). First, ROC analyses were run to identify critical cut-off values of WBI (WBIS-C score) that identify those who are at higher risk for psychosocial problems or eating disorder symptoms (as reported by parents). Second, it was examined whether WBI is more sensitive than the relative weight status in that respect. Third, to confirm that the cut-off value is also accompanied by higher psychological strain, high- and low-risk groups were compared in terms of their self-reported depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem. Results WBIS-C scores >= 1.55 were associated with a higher risk of disturbed eating behavior; for psychosocial problems, no cut-off score reached adequate sensitivity and specificity. Compared to relative weight status, WBI was better suited to detect disturbed eating behavior. Children with a WBIS-C score >= 1.55 also reported higher scores for both depressive and anxious symptoms, higher body dissatisfaction, and lower self-esteem. Conclusion The WBIS-C is suitable for identifying risk groups, and even low levels of WBI are accompanied by adverse mental health. Therefore, WBI is, beyond weight status, an important risk factor that should be considered in prevention and intervention.
Public Significance Statement This study demonstrates that simulated patients (SPs) can authentically portray a depressive case. The results provide preliminary evidence of psychometrically sound properties of the rating scale that contributes to distinguishing between authentic and unauthentic SPs and may thus foster SPs' dissemination into evidence-based training. <br /> For training purposes, simulated patients (SPs), that is, healthy people portraying a disorder, are disseminating more into clinical psychology and psychotherapy. In the current study, we developed an observer-based rating instrument for the evaluation of SP authenticity-namely, it not being possible to distinguish them from real patients-so as to foster their use in evidence-based training. We applied a multistep inductive approach to develop the Authenticity of Patient Demonstrations (APD) scale. Ninety-seven independent psychotherapy trainees, 77.32% female, mean age of 31.49 (SD = 5.17) years, evaluated the authenticity of 2 independent SPs, each of whom portrayed a depressive patient. The APD demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .83) and a strong correlation (r = .82) with an established tool for assessing SP performance in medical contexts. The APD scale distinguished significantly between an authentic and unauthentic SP (d = 2.35). Preliminary evidence for the psychometric properties of the APD indicates that the APD could be a viable tool for recruiting, training, and evaluating the authenticity of SPs. Strengths, limitations, and future directions are also discussed in detail.
Top down or bottom up?
(2022)
Classical theoretical perspectives have implied that either global self-esteem has an impact on domain-specific self-esteem (top-down) or domain-specific self-esteem affects global self-esteem (bottom-up). The goal of the present research was to investigate whether classical top-down and bottom-up approaches could withstand a thorough test. To do so, we applied elaborate analytical methods in a four-wave longitudinal study across 6 years with preregistered hypotheses and data analyses. We analyzed data from N = 1,417 German participants (30.6% men, median of 12 to 13 years of education) with an average age of 47.0 years (SD = 12.4, range 18 to 88) at intake. Analyses using latent variable approaches for modeling intraindividual change provided evidence of top-down effects only. For example, participants with higher global self-esteem exhibited an increase in performance self-esteem but not vice versa. Our results also provided evidence of "vertical" associations between global and domain-specific self-esteem, that is, parallel development within the same time frame. In addition, the analyses revealed high rank order stability and a substantial trait component in global self-esteem and the self-esteem domains. The present findings have important theoretical and practical implications for the stability and development of self-esteem in adulthood and advance the understanding of global and domain-specific self-esteem in personality theory.
The perceptual span describes the size of the visual field from which information is obtained during a fixation in reading. Its size depends on characteristics of writing system and reader, but-according to the foveal load hypothesis-it is also adjusted dynamically as a function of lexical processing difficulty. Using the moving window paradigm to manipulate the amount of preview, here we directly test whether the perceptual span shrinks as foveal word difficulty increases. We computed the momentary size of the span from word-based eye-movement measures as a function of foveal word frequency, allowing us to separately describe the perceptual span for information affecting spatial saccade targeting and temporal saccade execution. First fixation duration and gaze duration on the upcoming (parafoveal) word N + 1 were significantly shorter when the current (foveal) word N was more frequent. We show that the word frequency effect is modulated by window size. Fixation durations on word N + 1 decreased with high-frequency words N, but only for large windows, that is, when sufficient parafoveal preview was available. This provides strong support for the foveal load hypothesis. To investigate the development of the foveal load effect, we analyzed data from three waves of a longitudinal study on the perceptual span with German children in Grades 1 to 6. Perceptual span adjustment emerged early in development at around second grade and remained stable in later grades. We conclude that the local modulation of the perceptual span indicates a general cognitive process, perhaps an attentional gradient with rapid readjustment.
Japanese parents and educators teach children to refrain from leaving food in their plates. Their teachings have direct (advising children to refrain from leaving food uneaten) and indirect (meal-related rituals before and after mealtimes) influence in enhancing gratitude for food in daily life.This cross-sectional study aimed to examine 1) the interaction of direct and indirect approaches to avoiding food waste behaviors and 2) the mediation of gratitude for food by preventing such behaviors. Overall, 400 Japanese adults (female: n = 200) responded to a self-administrated anonymous questionnaire survey measuring: the present food waste avoiding behaviors; current gratitude for food; direct and indirect childhood approaches for avoiding food waste behaviors. Participants' mean (standard deviation) age and body mass index were 40.0 (11.6) and 21.9 (3.9), respectively. A significant main effect of the indirect approach and the interaction of direct and indirect approaches were obtained by adjusting the participants' background. Moreover, through mediation analyses with percentile-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals, it was observed that gratitude for food mediated the association between direct and indirect childhood approaches and avoiding food waste behaviors. Despite no information on the current meal-related rituals of the respondents, this study suggests the potential of these approaches in enhancing gratitude for food as a new approach to reduce food waste worldwide.
There is a close conceptual relation between the notions of religious disenchantment and scientific naturalism. One way of resisting philosophical and cultural implications of the scientific image and the subsequent process of disenchantment can be found in attempts at sketching a reenchanted worldview. The main issue of accounts of reenchantment can be a rejection of scientific results in a way that flies in the face of good reason. Opposed to such reenchantment is scientific naturalism which implies an entirely disenchanted worldview. However, one of the main problems of scientific naturalism are placement problems. A reenchanted worldview does have the conceptual resources to avoid placement problems, yet seems to throw out the baby (a reasonable appeal to science as an authority) with the bathwater (placement problems). A dilemma results: the Scylla of an undesirable scientific naturalism and the Charybdis of a rampant, seemingly prescientific reenchanted worldview. In this article I argue that there is a safe middle passage between these two options, i.e. the recently proposed liberal naturalism which allows for a moderate normative reenchantment. Liberal naturalism lets us have it both ways: avoiding the placement problems while retaining a necessary and reasonable adherence to science, thereby avoiding both an all-too restrictive scientific naturalism.
The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is the most current measure of body appreciation, a central facet of positive body image. This work aimed to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of a German version. In Study 1 (N = 659; M-age = 27.19, SD = 8.57), exploratory factor analyses (EFA) revealed that the German BAS-2 has a one-dimensional factor structure in women and men, showing cross-gender factor similarity. In Study 2 (N = 472; M-age = 30.08, SD = 12.35), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) further supported the original scale's one-dimensional factor structure after freeing correlated errors. The German BAS-2 also showed partial scalar invariance across gender, with women and men not differing significantly in latent mean scores. As predicted, we found convergent relationships with measures of self-esteem, intuitive eating, and variables associated with negative body image (i.e., weight-and shape concerns, drive for thinness). Correlations with BMI were small and in an inverse direction. Incremental validity was demonstrated by predicting self-esteem and intuitive eating over and above measures of negative body image. Additionally, the German BAS-2 showed internal consistency and 2-week test-retest reliability. Overall, our results suggest that the German BAS-2 is a psychometrically sound instrument.
There is increasing interest in improving psychotherapy training using evidence-based supervision. One approach is live supervision (LS), in which the supervisor offers immediate feedback to the trainee (e.g., via microphone, text messages) during the session. This review summarizes the research on LS and its main results. The databases Web of Science Core Collection, PsycArticles, PsycBooks, PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, and PubMed were searched from inception to January 23, 2020 (including a backward search) and updated November 15, 2020. The inclusion criteria (i.e., main focus on LS, immediate feedback from a present supervisor, psychological setting) were met by k = 138 publications, including k = 8 randomized controlled trials (RCTs; N = 339). Two reviewers independently evaluated the RCTs' risk of bias using the revised Cochrane Risk-of-Bias Tool. Most publications had a family therapy background (59%), were categorized as nonempirical (55%), aimed primarily at describing or comparing specific LS methods (35%), and displayed positive views on LS (87%). Based on the RCTs, LS was superior to no-supervision in 78% of all comparisons, but only in 13% of the cases compared to a delayed supervision (DS) condition (i.e., regarding trainee skills, patient outcomes, or other variables). These results somewhat contradict the overall favorable views in the literature. However, the generalizability is limited due to a lack of high-quality studies and substantial heterogeneity in terms of LS methods, concepts, outcomes, and measurements. Ideas for more systematic research on LS regarding objectives and methods are proposed. <br /> Public Significance Statement This review summarizes research on live supervision (LS). LS is a form of supervision in psychotherapy training in which the supervisor observes the trainee's therapy session and provides immediate feedback. The review concludes that LS is probably as effective as delayed supervision (DS), although more high-quality research is needed.
Nicht-bewusst
(2022)
Die digitale Aufrüstung des Sozialen und Psychischen schreitet voran. Social media, verkabelte Infrastrukturen und autonome technische Artefakte bestimmen das Bild einer Gesellschaft, die in immer komplexeren Gefügen agiert. Die zunehmende Präsenz von nonhumanen Agenten (nicht nur in Film und Literatur), die Entwicklung von smarten Objekten und die sensortechnologische Ausstattung des menschlichen Körpers und der Umwelt führen zu Kurzschlüssen zwischen humaner und nonhumaner agency, die nicht mehr unbewusst, sondern nichtbewusst sind. Das Unbewusste der Psychoanalyse ist an ein humanes (sprachlich-symbolisch organisiertes) Subjekt gekoppelt, der Begriff »nicht«-bewusst verbindet hingegen technische, mentale und körperliche Prozesse und ist damit nicht mehr ausschließlich dem Menschen zuzuordnen. Doch wie ist dieses ›nichtbewusst‹ zu fassen: ist es etwas Zusätzliches, ist es eine neue Zone, die sich zwischen unbewusst und bewusst schiebt, oder wird durch die Unterscheidung von unbewusst und bewusst dadurch insgesamt in Frage gestellt?
Manches deutet auf die zweite Entwicklung hin. Denn spätestens mit der Kybernetik werden technische und neuronale Prozesse zusammen gedacht. Gilbert Simondon hat die technische und humane Entwicklung als einen Prozess verstanden. Catherine Malabou führt den Begriff des cerebral nonconscious ein, um das psychoanalytische Unbewusste in ein nichtbewusstes Gehirn überzuführen, und N. Katherine Hayles spricht von nonconscious cognition, um das Zusammenwirken von neuronalen und technischen Prozessen zu benennen. Doch all diesen Unternehmungen, die diese (intensiven) Beziehungen von Gehirn und Maschine zu fassen suchen, fehlt ein wesentliches Moment der Verkopplung und psychischen Integration.
Hierfür wird der Begriff des Affektiven eingeführt, der als technischer Terminus die Bewegungen des Schließens, Unterbrechens und Übersetzens zwischen human und nonhuman bezeichnet. Dadurch werden die Kurzschlüsse von psycho-technischen Prozessen als nichtbewusste Taktung von Bewegungs- und Zeitformationen fassbar.
Objective: Despite increasing research on psychotherapy preferences, the preferences of psychotherapy trainees are largely unknown. Moreover, differences in preferences between trainees and their patients could (a) hinder symptom improvement and therapy success for patients and (b) represent significant obstacles in the early career and development of future therapists. Method: We compared the preferences of n = 466 psychotherapy trainees to those of n = 969 laypersons using the Cooper-Norcross Inventory of Preferences. Moreover, we compared preferences between trainees in cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and psychodynamic trainees. Results: We found significant differences between both samples in 13 of 18 items, and three of four subscales. Psychotherapy trainees preferred less therapist directiveness (d = 0.58), more emotional intensity (d = 0.74), as well as more focused challenge (d = 0.35) than laypeople. CBT trainees preferred more therapist directiveness (d = 2.00), less emotional intensity (d = 0.51), more present orientation (d = 0.76) and more focused challenge (d = 0.33) than trainees in psychodynamic/psychoanalytic therapy. Conclusion: Overall, the results underline the importance of implementing preference assessment and discussion during psychotherapy training. Moreover, therapists of different orientations seem to cover a large range of preferences for patients, in order to choose the right fit.
Despite the positive effects of including patients' preferences into therapy on psychotherapy outcomes, there are still few thoroughly validated assessment tools at hand. We translated the 18-item Cooper-Norcross Inventory of Preferences (C-NIP) into German and aimed at replicating its factor structure. Further, we investigated the reliability of the questionnaire and its convergence with trait measures. A heterogeneous sample of N = 969 participants took part in our online survey. Performing ESEM models, we found acceptable model fit for a four-factor structure similar to the original factor structure. Furthermore, we propose an alternative model following the adjustment of single items. The German C-NIP showed acceptable to good reliability, as well as small correlations with Big-Five personality traits, trait and attachment anxiety, locus of control, and temporal focus. However, we recommend further replication of the factor structure and further validation of the C-NIP.
Despite the positive effects of including patients’ preferences into therapy on psychotherapy outcomes, there are still few thoroughly validated assessment tools at hand. We translated the 18-item Cooper-Norcross Inventory of Preferences (C-NIP) into German and aimed at replicating its factor structure. Further, we investigated the reliability of the questionnaire and its convergence with trait measures. A heterogeneous sample of N = 969 participants took part in our online survey. Performing ESEM models, we found acceptable model fit for a four-factor structure similar to the original factor structure. Furthermore, we propose an alternative model following the adjustment of single items. The German C-NIP showed acceptable to good reliability, as well as small correlations with Big-Five personality traits, trait and attachment anxiety, locus of control, and temporal focus. However, we recommend further replication of the factor structure and further validation of the C-NIP.
Objective
While cross-sectional studies underline that child and parent factors in pediatric chronic pain are reciprocally related, so far, little is known on their prospective relationship, especially in treatment contexts. This study aims to analyze directions of influence between child and parental outcomes using data from an intervention study.
Methods
The sample covered 109 families with children aged 7-13 years diagnosed with functional abdominal pain (FAP). Child outcomes included pain and impairment, and parental outcomes covered caregiver-specific distress including both parental personal time burden (i.e., less time available for personal needs) and emotional burden due to child's pain (i.e., increased worries). Cross-lagged panel analyses examined the directions of the relations between child and parental outcomes across time (pretreatment T1, post-treatment T2, and 3-month follow-up and 12-month follow-up T3/T4).
Results
First, a significant improvement over time in all measures was observed. Cross-lagged effects were found for less parental personal time burden at T2, predicting both less pain (beta = -0.254, p = .004) and less impairment (beta = -0.150, p = .039) at T3. Higher baseline pain was predictive for higher parental emotional burden after treatment (beta = -0.130, p = .049) and, reversely, for less emotional burden at 12-month follow-up (beta = 0.261, p = .004).
Conclusions
Addressing parental personal time burden in FAP treatment might possibly support the improvement on the child level. Replication of results in larger samples is warranted to gain more insight into the directions of influence and, in that way, to optimize treatment for pediatric FAP.
Dynamical models make specific assumptions about cognitive processes that generate human behavior. In data assimilation, these models are tested against timeordered data. Recent progress on Bayesian data assimilation demonstrates that this approach combines the strengths of statistical modeling of individual differences with the those of dynamical cognitive models.
In this paper we examine the effect of uncertainty on readers’ predictions about meaning. In particular, we were interested in how uncertainty might influence the likelihood of committing to a specific sentence meaning. We conducted two event-related potential (ERP) experiments using particle verbs such as turn down and manipulated uncertainty by constraining the context such that readers could be either highly certain about the identity of a distant verb particle, such as turn the bed […] down, or less certain due to competing particles, such as turn the music […] up/down. The study was conducted in German, where verb particles appear clause-finally and may be separated from the verb by a large amount of material. We hypothesised that this separation would encourage readers to predict the particle, and that high certainty would make prediction of a specific particle more likely than lower certainty. If a specific particle was predicted, this would reflect a strong commitment to sentence meaning that should incur a higher processing cost if the prediction is wrong. If a specific particle was less likely to be predicted, commitment should be weaker and the processing cost of a wrong prediction lower. If true, this could suggest that uncertainty discourages predictions via an unacceptable cost-benefit ratio. However, given the clear predictions made by the literature, it was surprisingly unclear whether the uncertainty manipulation affected the two ERP components studied, the N400 and the PNP. Bayes factor analyses showed that evidence for our a priori hypothesised effect sizes was inconclusive, although there was decisive evidence against a priori hypothesised effect sizes larger than 1μV for the N400 and larger than 3μV for the PNP. We attribute the inconclusive finding to the properties of verb-particle dependencies that differ from the verb-noun dependencies in which the N400 and PNP are often studied.