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Institute
- Department Psychologie (2334) (remove)
The optical density of human macular pigment was measured for 50 observers ranging in age from 10 to 90 years. The psychophysical method required adjusting the radiance of a 1°, monochromatic light (400–550 nm) to minimize flicker (15 Hz) when presented in counterphase with a 460 nm standard. This test stimulus was presented superimposed on a broad-band, short-wave background. Macular pigment density was determined by comparing sensitivity under these conditions for the fovea, where macular pigment is maximal, and 5° temporally. This difference spectrum, measured for 12 observers, matched Wyszecki and Stiles's standard density spectrum for macular pigment. To study variation in macular pigment density for a larger group of observers, measurements were made at only selected spectral points (460, 500 and 550 nm). The mean optical density at 460 nm for the complete sample of 50 subjects was 0.39. Substantial individual differences in density were found (ca. 0.10–0.80), but this variation was not systematically related to age.
Motivational conditions have been thus far largely neglected by contemporary theoretical approaches in knowledge psychology. The present article attempts to demonstrate the necessity for the greater integration of both. Suggestions are made regarding the choice and conceptualization of relevant motivational factors. Two possible groups of factors can be distinguished: (1) motivational factors of personality, and (2) motivational effects of action. Available theoretical approaches (e.g., the "levels of processing" approach) and examples are used to clarify the potential effects of these factors on the acquisition and representation of knowledge. Finally, a review is made of empirical studies allowing confirmatory allegations about the posited relationships between motivational factors and processes related to knowledge. This review reveals substantial research deficits on this topic.
Two studies are reported which examine the availability of scientific propositions of personality in lay conceptions of personality. It is argued from a social constructivist perspective that models of personality must derive from and refer to lay conceptions of persons. Eysenck's trait-type model of introversion-extroversion, containing specific propositions about phenotypic and genotypic differences between extraverts and introverts, was utilized as the scientific model of personality and its availability in lay conceptions of personality was examined in two studies. In the first study, subjects were presented with a genotypic characterization of either an introvert or an extravert target person and asked to infer corresponding phenotypic differences. In the second study, the inference process was reversed with subjects being asked to infer genotypic characteristics of introverts versus extraverts on the basis of phenotypic target person descriptions of the two types. Results from both studies show a high degree of accuracy in subjects' inferences, suggesting that laypersons have well-formed conceptions about personality containing 'higher-order' psychogenetic propositions corresponding to Eysenck's trait-type model. The implications of the findings for theory construction are discussed.
Inhalt: 1 Selbstwertdienliche Attributionen von Erfolg und Mißerfolg 2 „Selbstbehinderung" zur Vorbeugung gegen Verantwortlichkeit für Mißerfolg 3 Attributionen in der Öffentlichkeit: Identitätsbehauptung durch Selbstdarstellung? 4 Personale Kontrolle und Attribution 5 Geschlechtsrollen-Identität und Attributionen für Erfolg und Mißerfolg 6 Zusammenfassung
Fluid intelligence belongs to that cluster of intellectual abilities evincing aging loss. To examine further the range of intellectual reserve available to aging individuals and the question of replicability in a new cultural and laboratory setting, 204 healthy older adults (mean age = 72 years; range = 60-86) participated in a short-term longitudinal training study. For experimental subjects, 10 sessions consisted of cognitive training involving two subability tests (Figural Relations, Induction) of fluid intelligence. The pattern of outcomes replicates and expands on earlier studies. Older adults have the reserve to evince substantial increases in levels of performance in fluid intelligence tests. Transfer of training, however, is narrow in scope. Training also increases accuracy of performance and the ability to solve more difficult test items. Difficulty level was estimated in a separate study, with a comparable sample of N = 112 elderly adults. Future research is suggested to examine whether intellectual reserve extends to near-maximum levels of performance.
Der hier berichtete Forschungsansatz kombiniert entwicklungs- und kognitionspsychologische Fragestellungen. Das entwicklungspsychologische Ziel war, Potential und Grenzen latenter kognitiver Leistungsreserven bei jungen und älteren Erwachsenen sichtbar zu machen. Eine systematische Heranführung an Leistungsgrenzen sollte außerdem die unterschiedliche Alterssensitivität kognitiver Prozesse verdeutlichen und zu einer Vergrößerung interindividueller Unterschiede führen. Das kognitionspsychologische Ziel war, die Genese kognitiver Expertise unter Laborbedingungen zu simulieren, wobei vor allem die Transformation von Laien- in Expertenwissen untersucht werden sollte. Diese Überlegungen wurden in einem Trainingsprogramm überprüft, in dessen Verlauf junge und ältere Erwachsene in einer Gedächtniskunst für das Behalten von Zufallszahlen und Wortlisten unterwiesen wurden. Die Brauchbarkeit dieses experimentellen Paradigmas für die Überprüfung der theoretischen Fragen wird durch Ergebnisse aus vier Einzelfallstudien belegt.
This research has three interrelated foci: (i) engineering and testing a cognitive model of expert memory, (ii) the study of intellectual reserve capacity and (iii) the use of a testing-the-limits methodology to magnify and delineate age differences in limits of reserve capacity. The assumption is that age differences are magnified if studied at high levels of expertise or task difficulty. Results from age-comparative point training studies in expert memory are reported. Both young and elderly subjects reached high levels of skilled memory, confirming the model. However, despite this sizeable reserve capacity, when compared to IQ-eguivalent young adults, superior elderly showed decline in upper limits of function.
Similar perceptions, similar reactions : an idiographic approach to cross-situational coherence
(1986)
The study provides a test of the interactionist concept of behavioral coherence across situations. Following an approach suggested by D. Magnusson and B. Ekehammer (1978, Journal of Research in Personality, 12, 41-48), individual correlations between self-reported behavior patterns and perceived similarity ratings across anxiety-provoking situations are obtained as measures of coherence. Unlike the Magnusson and Ekehammar study, the present measures of situation cognition and behavior are based on an idiographic sampling of anxiety-provoking situations. As a step toward concept-based measurement of situation cognition, further measures of perceived situational similarity are derived from the script, prototype, and social episodes models in social psychology and correlated with cross-situational similarity of behavioral profiles. It is demonstrated, in comparison with the findings of Magnusson and Ekehammar, that correlations between similarity ratings and behavior patterns increase substantially as a result of an idiographic sampling of situations. Moreover, it is shown that "script," "prototype," and "social episode" measures can be utilized to investigate the covariation between situation cognition and behavior, thus contributing to the clarification of the principles of cognitive representation of situational experience.
I. Introduction A. Theoretical Framework and Selection of Tests B. Related Studies of Reading Disability Subtypes C. Overview of Specific Questions and Article Outline II. Selection criteria nd performance on standardized measures III. Group differences between disabled and normal readers A. Phonetic Memory B. Picture-Naming Speed and Automatic Responses to Print C. Phonological and Orthographic Skill D. Easy Regular and Exception Word Reading E. Difficult Regular and Exception Words IV. Individual diferences in reading disability A. Phonological Skill, Orthographic Skill, and the Regularity Effect B. Phonological Skill, Orthographic Skill, and Spelling Errors V. Eye movement reading style A. The "Plodder-Explorer" Dimension of Eye Movement Reading Style B. Eye Movements, Coding Skills, and Spelling Ratings C. Verbal Intelligence and the Plodder-Explorer Dimension D. Eye Movements in a Nonreading Task and the "Visual-Spatial" Subtype VI. Distribution and etiology of reading disabilities A. Distribution Issues B. Etiology of Reading Disabilities VII. Summary and new directions in research