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Mafic magmatism in the Eastern Cordillera and Putumayo Basin, Colombia : causes and consequences
(2007)
The Eastern Cordillera of Colombia is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks deposited since early Mesozoic times. Magmatic rocks are scarce. They are represented only by a few locally restricted occurrences of dykes and sills of mafic composition presumably emplaced in the Cretaceous and of volcanic rocks of Neogene age. This work is focused on the study of the Cretaceous magmatism with the intention to understand the processes causing the genesis of these rocks and their significance in the regional tectonic setting of the Northern Andes. The magmatic rocks cut the Cretaceous sedimentary succession of black shales and marlstones that crop out in both flanks of the Eastern Cordillera. The studied rocks were classified as gabbros (Cáceres, Pacho, Rodrigoque), tonalites (Cáceres, La Corona), diorites and syenodiorites (La Corona), pyroxene-hornblende gabbros (Pacho), and pyroxene-hornblendites (Pajarito). The gabbroic samples are mainly composed of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and/or green to brown hornblende, whereas the tonalitic rocks are mainly composed of plagioclase and quartz. The samples are highly variable in crystal sizes from fine- to coarse-grained. Accessory minerals such as biotite, titanite and zircon are present. Some samples are characterized by moderate to strong alteration, and show the presence of epidote, actinolite and chlorite. Major and trace element compositions of the rocks as well as the rock-forming minerals show significant differences in the geochemical and petrological characteristics for the different localities, suggesting that this magmatism does not result from a single melting process. The wide compositional spectrum of trace elements in the intrusions is characteristic for different degrees of mantle melting and enrichment of incompatible elements. MORB- and OIB-like compositions suggest at least two different sources of magma with tholeiitic and alkaline affinity, respectively. Evidence of slab-derived fluids can be recognized in the western part of the basin reflected in higher Ba/Nb and Sr/P ratios and also in the Sr radiogenic isotope ratios, which is possible a consequence of metasomatism in the mantle due to processes related to the presence of a previously subducted slab. The trace element patterns evidence an extensional setting in the Cretaceous basin producing a continental rift, with continental crust being stretched until oceanic crust was generated in the last stages of this extension. Electron microprobe analyses (EMPA) of the major elements and synchrotron radiation micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-SRXRF) analyses of the trace element composition of the early crystallized minerals of the intrusions (clinopyroxenes and amphiboles) reflect the same dual character that has been found in the bulk-rock analyses. Despite the observed alteration of the rocks, the mineral composition shows evidences for an enriched and a relative depleted magma source. Even the normalization of the trace element concentrations of clinopyroxenes and amphiboles to the whole rock nearly follows the pattern predicted by published partition coefficients, suggesting that the alteration did not change the original trace element compositions of the investigated minerals. Sr-Nd-Pb isotope data reveal a large isotopic variation but still suggest an initial origin of the magmas in the mantle. Samples have moderate to highly radiogenic compositions of 143Nd/144Nd and high 87Sr/86Sr ratios and follow a trend towards enriched mantle compositions, like the local South American Paleozoic crust. The melts experienced variable degrees of contamination by sediments, crust, and seawater. The age corrected Pb isotope ratios show two separated groups of samples. This suggests that the chemical composition of the mantle below the Northern Andes has been modified by the interaction with other components resulting in a heterogeneous combination of materials of diverse origins. Although previous K/Ar age dating have shown that the magmatism took place in the Cretaceous, the high error of the analyses and the altered nature of the investigated minerals did preclude reliable interpretations. In the present work 40Ar/39Ar dating was carried out. The results show a prolonged history of magmatism during the Cretaceous over more than 60 Ma, from ~136 to ~74 Ma (Hauterivian to Campanian). Pre-Cretaceous rifting phases occurred in the Triassic-Jurassic for the western part of the basin and in the Paleozoic for the eastern part. Those previous rifting phases are decisive mechanisms controlling the localization and composition of the Cretaceous magmatism. Therefore, it is the structural position and not the age of the intrusions which preconditions the kind of magmatism and the degree of melting. The divergences on ages are the consequence of the segmentation of the basin in several sub-basins which stretching, thermal evolution and subsidence rate evolved independently. The first hypothesis formulated at the beginning of this investigation was that the Cretaceous gabbroic intrusions identified in northern Ecuador could be correlated with the intrusions described in the Eastern Cordillera. The mafic occurrences should mark the location of the most subsiding places of the large Cretaceous basin in northern South America. For this reason, the gabbroic intrusions cutting the Cretaceous succession in the Putumayo Basin, southern Colombia, were investigated. The results of the studies were quite unexpected. The petrologic and geochemical character of the magmatic rocks indicates subduction-related magmatism. K/Ar dating of amphibole yields a Late Miocene to Pliocene age (6.1 ± 0.7 Ma) for the igneous event in the basin. Although there is no correlation between this magmatic event and the Cretaceous magmatic event, the data obtained has significant tectonic and economic implications. The emplacement of the Neogene gabbroic rocks coincides with the late Miocene/Pliocene Andean orogenic uplift as well as with a significant pulse of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion.
The spatio-temporal evolution of the three recent tsunamogenic earthquakes (TsE) off-coast N-Sumatra (Mw9.3), 28/03/2005 (Mw8.5) off-coast Nias, on 17/07/2006 (Mw7.7) off-coast Java. Start time, duration, and propagation of the rupture are retrieved. All parameters can be obtained rapidly after recording of the first-arrival phases in near-real time processing. We exploit semblance analysis, backpropagation and broad-band seismograms within 30°-95° distance. Image enhancement is reached by stacking the semblance of arrays within different directions. For the three events, the rupture extends over about 1150, 150, and 200km, respectively. The events in 2004, 2005, and 2006 had source durations of at least 480s, 120s, and 180s, respectively. We observe unilateral rupture propagation for all events except for the rupture onset and the Nias event, where there is evidence for a bilateral start of the rupture. Whereas average rupture speed of the events in 2004 and 2005 is in the order of the S-wave speed (≈2.5-3km/s), unusually slow rupturing (≈1.5 km/s) is indicated for the July 2006 event. For the July 2006 event we find rupturing of a 200 x 100 km wide area in at least 2 phases with propagation from NW to SE. The event has some characteristics of a circular rupture followed by unilateral faulting with change in slip rate. Fault area and aftershock distribution coincide. Spatial and temporal resolution are frequency dependent. Studies of a Mw6.0 earthquake on 2006/09/21 and one synthetic source show a ≈1° limit in resolution. Retrieved source area, source duration as well as peak values for semblance and beam power generally increase with the size of the earthquake making possible an automatic detection and classification of large and small earthquakes.
The Mw=7.7 tsunamogenic earthquake (TsE) on 17 July 2006, 08:19:28 shock the Indian Ocean at about 15 km depth off-coast Java, Indonesia. It caused a local tsunami with wave heights exceeding 2 m. The death toll reached several hundred. Thousands of people were displaced. By means of standard array methods, we have investigated the propagation and the extent of the rupture front of the causative earthquake. Waveform similarity is expressed by means of the semblance. We back-propagate the semblance for first-arrival phases recorded at broad-band stations within teleseismic distances (30°-95°). Image enhancement is realised by stacking the semblance of 8 arrays within different epicentral and azimuthal directions. From teleseismic observations we find rupturing of a 200 x 100 km wide area in at least 2 phases with propagation from NW to SE and source duration >125 s. The event has some characteristics of a circular rupture followed by unilateral faulting with change in slip rate. Unusually slow rupturing (≈1.5 km/s) is indicated. Fault area and aftershock distribution coincide. Spatial and temporal resolution are frequency dependent. Studies of a Mw6.0 earthquake on 2006/09/21 and one synthetic source show a ≈1° limit in resolution. Retrieved source area, source duration as well as peak values for semblance and beam power increase with the size of the earthquake making possible an automatic detection and classification of large and small earthquakes.
Investigations of spatial patterns in forest tree species composition are essential in the understanding of landscape dynamics, especially in areas of land-use change. The specific environmental factors controlling the present patterns, however, vary with the scale of observation. In this study we estimated abundance of adult trees and tree regeneration in a Southern Alpine valley in Ticino, Switzerland. We hypothesized that, at the present scale, spatial pattern of post-cultural tree species does not primarily depend on topographic features but responds instead to small- scale variation in historical land use. We used multivariate regression trees to relate species abundances to environmental variables. Species matrices were comprised of single tree species abundance as well as species groups. Groups were formed according to common ecological species requirements with respect to shade tolerance, soil moisture and soil nutrients. Though species variance could only be partially explained, a clear ranking in the relative importance of environmental variables emerged. Tree basal area of formerly cultivated Castanea sativa (Mill.) was the most important factor accounting for up to 50% of species' variation. Influence of topographic attributes was minor, restricted to profile curvature, and partly contradictory in response. Our results suggest the importance of biotic factors and soil properties for small-scale variation in tree species composition and need for further investigations in the study area on the ecological requirements of tree species in the early growing stage.