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It is shown that several polymers can form insoluble interfacial layers on a poly (ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) layer after annealing of the double-layer structure. The thickness of the interlayer is dependent on the characteristics of the underlying PEDOT.PSS and the molecular weight of the polymers. It is further shown that the electronic structures of the interlayer polymers have a significant effect on the properties of red-light-emitting polymer-based electrophosphorescent devices. Upon increasing the highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital positions, a significant increase in current density and device efficiency is observed. This is attributed to efficient blocking of electrons in combination with direct injection of holes from the interlayer to the phosphorescent dye. Upon proper choice of the interlayer polymer, efficient red, polymer-based electrophosphorescent devices with a peak luminance efficiency of 5.5 cd A(-1) (external quantum efficiency = 6 %) and a maximum power-conversion efficiency of 5 Im W-1 can be realized.
An understanding of the factors limiting the open-circuit voltage (V-oc) and related photon energy loss mechanisms is critical to increase the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of small-molecule organic solar cells (OSCs), especially those with near-infrared (NIR) absorbers. In this work, two NIR boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) molecules are characterized for application in planar (PHJ) and bulk (BHJ) heterojunction OSCs. When two H atoms are substituted by F atoms on the peripheral phenyl rings of the molecules, the molecular aggregation type in the thin film changes from the H-type to J-type. For PHJ devices, the nonradiative voltage loss of 0.35 V in the J-aggregated BODIPY is lower than that of 0.49 V in the H-aggregated device. In BHJ devices with a nonradiative voltage loss of 0.35 V, a PCE of 5.5% is achieved with an external quantum efficiency (EQE) maximum of 68% at 700 nm.
The fact that organic solar cells perform efficiently despite the low dielectric constant of most photoactive blends initiated a long-standing debate regarding the dominant pathways of free charge formation. Here, we address this issue through the accurate measurement of the activation energy for free charge photogeneration over a wide range of photon energy, using the method of time-delayed collection field. For our prototypical low bandgap polymer:fullerene blends, we find that neither the temperature nor the field dependence of free charge generation depend on the excitation energy, ruling out an appreciable contribution to free charge generation though hot carrier pathways. On the other hand, activation energies are on the order of the room temperature thermal energy for all studied blends. We conclude that charge generation in such devices proceeds through thermalized charge transfer states, and that thermal energy is sufficient to separate most of these states into free charges.
We investigated the spectral properties of light-emitting diodes based on a deep blue-emitting pyrazoloquinoline dye doped into a poly(N-vinylcarbazole)-based matrix. Even though the electroluminescence (EL) of the host is redshifted and broadened with respect to the emission of the dye, the EL spectrum becomes fully dominated by the dye emission at concentrations of ca. 2 wt %. This is attributed to a competition of exciplex formation on the matrix and exciton formation on the dye.
In order to unravel the intricate interplay between disorder effects, molecular reorganization, and charge carrier localization, a comprehensive study was conducted on hole transport in a series of conjugated alternating phenanthrene indenofluorene copolymers. Each polymer in the series contained one further comonomer comprising monoamines, diamines, or amine-free structures, whose influence on the electronic, optical, and charge transport properties was studied. The series covered a wide range of highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energies as determined by cyclovoltammetry. The mobility, inferred from time-of-flight (ToF) experiments as a function of temperature and electric field, was found to depend exponentially on the HOMO energy. Since possible origins for this effect include energetic disorder, polaronic effects, and wave function localization, the relevant parameters were determined using a range of methods. Disorder and molecular reorganization were established first by an analysis of absorption and emission measurements and second by an analysis of the ToF measurements. In addition, density functional theory calculations were carried out to determine how localized or delocalized holes on a polymer chain are and to compare calculated reorganization energies with those that have been inferred from optical spectra. In summary, we conclude that molecular reorganization has little effect on the hole mobility in this system while both disorder effects and hole localization in systems with low-lying HOMOs are predominant. In particular, as the energetic disorder is comparable for the copolymers, the absolute value of the hole mobility at room temperature is determined by the hole localization associated with the triarylamine moieties.
Aggregation of chromophores in the solid state commonly causes undesirable red shifts in the emission spectra and/or emission quenching. To overcome this problem, we have prepared soluble perylenetetracarboxidiimide dyes in which the chromophores are effectively shielded by polyphenylene dendrimers attached in the bay positions. Models show that attachment of the shielding units in the bay position should provide more efficient shielding than attaching them via the imide moieties. The dendrimers possess excellent film-forming properties due to alkyl substituents on their peripheries. The lack of a red shift in emission upon going from solution to the solid state indicates the dendrons suppress interaction of the emissive cores, leading to pure red-orange emission. Single-layer LEDs produce red-orange emission with relatively low efficiency especially for the higher generation dendrons, which is attributed to poor charge conduction. LEDs using blends of the dendrimers and the undendronized dye as a model compound in PVK have been investigated, and a model to extract relative charge injection rates through the dendritic scaffold from the spectral contributions in the EL spectra is developed
We report that the performances of blue polymer electrophosphorescent devices are crucially depending on the choice of the electron transporting material incorporated into the emissive layer. Devices with 1,3-bis[(4-tert- butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxidiazolyl]phenylene (OXD-7) doped at similar to 40 wt% into a poly(vinylcarbazole) matrix exhibited significantly higher efficiencies than those with 2-(4-biphenylyl)-5-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), yielding maximum luminous and power efficiency values of 18.2 Cd/A and 8.8 lm/W, respectively. Time resolved photoluminescence measurements revealed a long lifetime phosphorescence component in layers with PBD, which we assign to significant triplet harvesting by this electron-transporting component. (c) 2006 American Institute of Physics
Bulk electron transport and charge injection in a high mobility n-type semiconducting polymer
(2010)
Bulk electron transport in a high mobility n-type polymer is studied by time-of-flight photocurrent measurements and electron-only devices. Bulk electron mobilities of similar to 5 x 10(-3) cm(2)/Vs are obtained. The analysis of the electron currents suggests the presence of an injection barrier for all conventionally used low workfunction cathodes.
In Leuchtdioden wird Licht durch die Rekombination von injizierten Ladungsträgern erzeugt. Das kann einerseits in anorganischen Materialien geschehen. In diesem Fall ist es notwendig, hochgeordnete Kristallstrukturen herzustellen, die die Eigenschaften der Leuchtdioden bestimmen. Ein anderer Ansatz ist die Verwendung von organischen Molekülen und Polymeren. Auf Grund der Vielseitigkeit der organischen Chemie können die Eigenschaften der verwendeten halbleitenden Polymere schon während der Synthese beeinflusst werden. Außerdem weisen auch diese Polymere die bekannte mechanische Flexibilität auf. Die Herstellung von flexiblen, großflächigen Beleuchtungsquellen und Anzeigelementen ist so möglich. Die erste Leuchtdiode mit einem halbleitenden Polymer als Emitter wurde 1990 hergestellt. Seither hat das Forschungsgebiet eine rasante Entwicklung genommen. Auch erste kommerzielle Produkte sind erhältlich. Im Zuge dieser Entwicklung wurde deutlich, dass die Eigenschaften von polymeren Leuchtdioden – beispielsweise Farbe und Effizienz – durch die Verwendung mehrerer Komponenten in der aktiven Schicht deutlich verbessert werden können. Gleichzeitig ergeben sich neue Herausforderungen durch die Wechselwirkungen der verschiedenen Filmbestandteile. Während die Komponenten oft entweder zur Verbesserung des Ladungstransportes oder zur Beeinflussung der Emission zugegeben werden, muss darauf geachtet werden, dass die anderen Prozesse nicht negativ beeinflusst werden. In dieser Arbeit werden einige dieser Wechselwirkungen untersucht und mit einfachen physikalischen Modellen erklärt. So werden zunächst blau emittierende Leuchtdioden auf der Basis von Polyfluoren untersucht. Dieses Material ist zwar ein sehr effizienter blauer Emitter, jedoch ist es anfällig für chemische Defekte, diese sich nicht vollständig verhindern lassen. Die Defekte bilden Fallenzustände für Elektronen, ihr Einfluss lässt sich durch die Zugabe von Lochfallen unterdrücken. Der zugrunde liegende Prozess, die Beeinflussung der Ladungsträgerbalance, wird erklärt. Im Folgenden werden Mischsystemen mit dendronisierten Emittern, die gleichzeitig eine Falle für Elektronen bilden, untersucht. Hier wird die unterschiedliche Wirkung der isolierenden Hülle auf die Ladungs- und Energieübertragung zwischen Matrix und Farbstoffkern der Dendrimere untersucht. In Mischsystemen haben die Natur der angeregten Zustände sowie die Art und Weise des Ladungsträgertransportes einen großen Einfluss auf diese Transferprozesse. Außerden hat auch hier die Ladungsträgerbalance Auswirkungen auf die Emission. Um den Ladungsträgereinfang in Fallenzuständen zu charakterisieren, wird eine Methode auf Grundlage der Messung des zeitaufgelösten Photostroms in organischen Mischfilmen weiterentwickelt. Die erzielten Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Übertragung der für geordnete Systeme entwickelten Modelle des Ladungsträgertransportes nicht ohne weiteres auf Polymersysteme mit hoher Unordnung übertragen werden können. Abschließend werden zeitaufgelöste Messungen der Phosphoreszenz in entsprechenden Mischungen aus Polymeren und organometallischen Verbindungen vorgestellt. Auch diese Systeme enthalten üblicherweise weitere Komponenten, die den Ladungstransport verbessern. In diesen Filmen kann es zu einer Übertragung der Tripletts vom Emitter auf die weiteren Filmbestandteile kommen. Bei Kenntnis der in Frage kommenden Wechselwirkungen können die unerwünschten Prozesse vermieden werden.
Three furan-fused BODIPYs were synthesized with perfluorinated methyl, ethyl and n-propyl groups on the meso-carbon. They were obtained with high yields by reacting the furan-fused 2-carboxylpyrrole in corresponding perfluorinated acid and anhydride. With the increase in perfluorinated alkyl chain length, the molecular packing in the single crystal is influenced, showing increasing stacking distance and decreasing slope angle. All the BODIPYs were characterized as intense absorbers in near infrared region in solid state, peaking at similar to 800 nm with absorption coefficient of over 280 000 cm(-1). Facilitated by high thermal stability, the furan-fused BODIPYs were employed in vacuum-deposited organic solar cells as electron donors. All devices exhibit PCE over 6.0% with the EQE maximum reaching 70% at similar to 790 nm. The chemical modification of the BODIPY donors have certain influence on the active layer morphology, and the highest PCE of 6.4% was obtained with a notably high jsc of 13.6 mA cm(-2). Sensitive EQE and electroluminance studies indicated that the energy losses generated by the formation of a charge transfer state and the radiative recombination at the donor-acceptor interface were comparable in the range of 0.14-0.19 V, while non-radiative recombination energy loss of 0.38 V was the main energy loss route resulting in the moderate V-oc of 0.76 V.