TY - JOUR A1 - Korges, Maximilian A1 - Weis, Philipp A1 - Andersen, Christine T1 - The role of incremental magma chamber growth on ore formation in porphyry copper systems JF - Earth & planetary science letters N2 - Porphyry copper deposits are formed by fluids released from felsic magmatic intrusions of batholithic dimensions, which are inferred to have been incrementally built up by a series of sill injections. The growth of the magma chamber is primarily controlled by the volumetric injection rate from deeper-seated magma reservoirs, but can further be influenced by hydrothermal convection and fluid release. To quantify the interplay between magma chamber growth, volatile expulsion and hydrothermal fluid flow during ore formation, we used numerical simulations that can model episodic sill injections in concert with multi-phase fluid flow. To build up a magma chamber that constantly maintains a small region of melt within a period of about 50 kyrs, an injection rate of at least 1.3 x 10(-3) km(3)/y is required. Higher magma influxes of 1.9 to 7.6 x 10(-3) km(3)/y are able to form magma chambers with a thickness of 2 to 3 km. Such an intrusion continuously produces magmatic volatiles which can precipitate a copper ore shell in the host rock about 2 km above the fluid injection location. The steady fluid flux from such an incrementally growing magma chamber maintains a stable magmatic fluid plume, precipitating a copper ore shell in a more confined region and resulting in higher ore grades than the ones generated by an instantaneous emplacement of a voluminous magma chamber. Our simulation results suggest that magma chambers related to porphyry copper deposits form by rapid and episodic injection of magma. Slower magma chamber growth rates more likely result in barren plutonic rocks, although they are geochemically similar to porphyry-hosting plutons. However, these low-frequency sill injection events without a significant magma chamber growth can generate magmatic fluid pulses that can reach the shallow subsurface and are typical for high-sulfidation epithermal deposits. KW - pluton KW - magma chamber KW - porphyry copper deposits KW - magmatic sill KW - numerical modeling KW - ore deposit Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116584 SN - 0012-821X SN - 1385-013X VL - 552 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam [u.a.] ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Korges, Maximilian A1 - Junge, Malte A1 - Borg, Gregor A1 - Oberthür, Thomas T1 - Supergene mobilization and redistribution of platinum-group elements in the Merensky Reef, eastern Bushveld Complex, South Africa JF - The Canadian mineralogist N2 - Near-surface supergene ores of the Merensky Reef in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, contain economic grades of platinum-group elements, however, these are currently uneconomic due to low recovery rates. This is the first study that investigates the variation in platinum-group elements in pristine and supergene samples of the Merensky Reef from five drill cores from the eastern Bushveld. The samples from the Richmond and Twickenham farms show different degrees of weathering. The whole-rock platinum-group element distribution was studied by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and the platinum-group minerals were investigated by reflected-light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron microprobe analysis.
In pristine ("fresh") Merensky Reef samples, platinum-group elements occur mainly as discrete platinum-group minerals, such as platinum-group element-sulfides (cooperite-braggite) and laurite as well as subordinate platinum-group elementbismuthotellurides and platinum-group element-arsenides, and also in solid solution in sulfides (especially Pd in pentlandite). During weathering, Pd and S were removed, resulting in a platinum-group mineral mineralogy in the supergene Merensky Reef that mainly consists of relict platinum-group minerals, Pt-Fe alloys, and Pt-oxides/hydroxides. Additional proportions of platinum-group elements are hosted by Fe-hydroxides and secondary hydrosilicates (e.g., serpentine group minerals and chlorite).
In supergene ores, only low recovery rates (ca. 40%) are achieved due to the polymodal and complex platinum-group element distribution. To achieve higher recovery rates for the platinum-group elements, hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical processing of the bulk ore would be required, which is not economically viable with existing technology. KW - Bushveld Complex KW - Merensky Reef KW - PGE KW - PGM KW - supergene ores KW - weathering Y1 - 2021 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3749/canmin.2100023 SN - 1499-1276 VL - 59 IS - 6 SP - 1381 EP - 1396 PB - Mineralogical Association of Canada CY - Ottawa ER - TY - THES A1 - Korges, Maximilian T1 - Constraining the hydrology of intrusion-related ore deposits with fluid inclusions and numerical modeling T1 - Bestimmung der Hydrologie von Erzlagerstätten an Intrusionen mit Flüssigkeitseinschlüssen und numerischer Modellierung N2 - Magmatic-hydrothermal fluids are responsible for numerous mineralization types, including porphyry copper and granite related tin-tungsten (Sn-W) deposits. Ore formation is dependent on various factors, including, the pressure and temperature regime of the intrusions, the chemical composition of the magma and hydrothermal fluids, and fluid rock interaction during the ascent. Fluid inclusions have potential to provide direct information on the temperature, salinity, pressure and chemical composition of fluids responsible for ore formation. Numerical modeling allows the parametrization of pluton features that cannot be analyzed directly via geological observations. Microthermometry of fluid inclusions from the Zinnwald Sn-W deposit, Erzgebirge, Germany / Czech Republic, provide evidence that the greisen mineralization is associated with a low salinity (2-10 wt.% NaCl eq.) fluid with homogenization temperatures between 350°C and 400°C. Quartzes from numerous veins are host to inclusions with the same temperatures and salinities, whereas cassiterite- and wolframite-hosted assemblages with slightly lower temperatures (around 350°C) and higher salinities (ca. 15 wt. NaCl eq.). Further, rare quartz samples contained boiling assemblages consisting of coexisting brine and vapor phases. The formation of ore minerals within the greisen is driven by invasive fluid-rock interaction, resulting in the loss of complexing agents (Cl-) leading to precipitation of cassiterite. The fluid inclusion record in the veins suggests boiling as the main reason for cassiterite and wolframite mineralization. Ore and coexisting gangue minerals hosted different types of fluid inclusions where the beginning boiling processes are solely preserved by the ore minerals emphasizing the importance of microthermometry in ore minerals. Further, the study indicates that boiling as a precipitation mechanism can only occur in mineralization related to shallow intrusions whereas deeper plutons prevent the fluid from boiling and can therefore form tungsten mineralization in the distal regions. The tin mineralization in the Hämmerlein deposit, Erzgebirge, Germany, occurs within a skarn horizon and the underlying schist. Cassiterite within the skarn contains highly saline (30-50 wt% NaCl eq.) fluid inclusions, with homogenization temperatures up to 500°C, whereas cassiterites from the schist and additional greisen samples contain inclusions of lower salinity (~5 wt% NaCl eq.) and temperature (between 350 and 400°C). Inclusions in the gangue minerals (quartz, fluorite) preserve homogenization temperatures below 350°C and sphalerite showed the lowest homogenization temperatures (ca. 200°C) whereby all minerals (cassiterite from schist and greisen, gangue minerals and sphalerite) show similar salinity ranges (2-5 wt% NaCl eq.). Similar trace element contents and linear trends in the chemistry of the inclusions suggest a common source fluid. The inclusion record in the Hämmerlein deposit documents an early exsolution of hot brines from the underlying granite which is responsible for the mineralization hosted by the skarn. Cassiterites in schist and greisen are mainly forming due to fluid-rock interaction at lower temperatures. The low temperature inclusions documented in the sphalerite mineralization as well as their generally low trace element composition in comparison to the other minerals suggests that their formation was induced by mixing with meteoric fluids. Numerical simulations of magma chambers and overlying copper distribution document the importance of incremental growth by sills. We analyzed the cooling behavior at variable injection intervals as well as sill thicknesses. The models suggest that magma accumulation requires volumetric injection rates of at least 4 x 10-4 km³/y. These injection rates are further needed to form a stable magmatic-hydrothermal fluid plume above the magma chamber to ensure a constant copper precipitation and enrichment within a confined location in order to form high-grade ore shells within a narrow geological timeframe between 50 and 100 kyrs as suggested for porphyry copper deposits. The highest copper enrichment can be found in regions with steep temperature gradients, typical of regions where the magmatic-hydrothermal fluid meets the cooler ambient fluids. N2 - Magmatisch-hydrothermale Fluide sind verantwortlich für zahlreiche Mineralisationstypen, wie porphyrische Kupferlagerstätten und granitgebundene Zinn-Wolfram (Sn-W) Lagerstätten. Die Lagerstättenbildung ist abhängig von unterschiedlichen Faktoren, z.B. dem Druck- und Temperaturregime der Intrusion, der chemischen Zusammensetzung des Magmas und der hydrothermalen Fluide sowie den Fluid-Gesteinsreaktionen während des Aufstiegs der Fluide. Flüssigkeitseinschlüsse haben das Potential, direkte Informationen zur Temperatur, zum Salzgehalt, zum Druck und der Chemie der Fluide, welche für die Lagerstättenbildung verantwortlich sind, zu liefern. Außerdem erlauben numerische Modellierungen die Parametrisierung der Plutoneigenschaften, die nicht direkt anhand von geologischen Beobachtungen analysiert werden können. Mikrothermometrie von Flüssigkeitseinschlüssen der Zinnwald Sn-W Lagerstätte zeigen, dass die Vergreisung an ein schwach salzhaltiges (2-10 wt.% NaCl eq.) Fluid gebunden ist, das zwischen 350°C und 400°C homogenisiert. Quarze der diversen Gänge beinhalten Einschlüsse mit den gleichen Temperaturen und Salzgehalten, wohingegen Kassiterit und Wolframit Einschlüsse mit niedrigeren Temperaturen (um 350°C) und höheren Salzgehalten zeigen (ca. 15 wt. NaCl eq.). Seltene Quarzproben enthalten kochende Einschluss-Ansammlungen, die aus koexistierenden salzreichen Lösungen und gasreichen Phasen bestehen. Die Bildung der Erzminerale des Greisens entsteht durch tiefgreifende Fluid-Gesteinsreaktionen, die den Verlust des Komplexbildners (Cl-) zur Folge haben, wodurch Kassiterit ausgefällt wird. Die Einschlüsse in den Gängen verdeutlichen, dass kochende Fluide der Hauptgrund für die Kassiterit– und Wolframit–Mineralisation sind. Erz- und benachbarte Gangminerale beinhalten unterschiedliche Einschlusstypen, wobei die beginnende Phasenseparation ausschließlich in den Erzmineralen erhalten ist, wodurch die Bedeutung der Mikrothermometrie in Erzmineralen hervorgehoben wird. Die Studie verdeutlicht weiterhin, dass Phasenseparation als Ausfällungsmechanismus nur in Lagerstätten gefunden werden können, die an flache Intrusionen gebunden sind, wohingegen tiefsitzende Granite die Phasenseparation verhindern. Dies hat zur Folge, dass eine Wolfram–Vererzung eher distal zur Intrusion auftritt. Die Zinn-Mineralisation der Hämmerlein Lagerstätte tritt sowohl in einem Skarn–Horizont als auch im darunterliegenden Schiefer auf. Fluideinschlüsse in Kassiteriten des Skarns enthalten Fluide mit hohem Salzgehhalt (30-50 wt% NaCl eq.) und Homogenisierungstemperaturen von bis zu 500°C, wohingegen Kassiterite des Schiefers (und von zusätzlichen Greisenproben) Einschlüsse mit geringerem Salzgehalt (~5 wt% NaCl eq.) und geringeren Temperaturen (zwischen 350 und 400°C) enthalten. Einschlüsse in Gangmineralen (Quarz, Fluorit) zeigen Homogenisierungstemperaturen von unter 350°C und Einschlüsse in Sphaleriten konservieren die niedrigsten gemessenen Temperaturen (ca. 200°C). Allerdings haben Flüssigkeitseinschlüsse in allen Mineralen (Kassiterite der Schiefer und Greisen, Gangminerale und Sphalerit) einen annähernd gleichen Salzgehalt (2-5 wt% NaCl eq.). Ähnliche Spurenelementgehalte und lineare Trends in der Chemie der Einschlüsse deuten auf ein gemeinsames Ursprungsfluid hin. Die Einschlüsse in der Hämmerlein-Lagerstätte dokumentieren eine frühe Entmischung von heißen Fluiden mit hohem Salzgehalt aus dem darunterliegenden Granit, die für die Mineralisation im Skarn verantwortlich ist. Die Kassiterite der Schiefer und der Greisen formen sich hauptsächlich durch Fluid-Gesteinsreaktionen bei niedrigeren Temperaturen. Die Niedrigtemperatureinschlüsse in Sphalerit und die im Vergleich zu den anderen Mineralen niedrigen Spurenelementgehalte deuten auf eine Bildung aufgrund von Mischungsprozessen mit meteorischen Fluiden hin. Numerische Simulationen von Magmenkammern und deren darüber gelegenen Kupferverteilungen dokumentieren die Wichtigkeit des schrittweisen Wachstums einer Intrusion durch Sills. Wir untersuchten das Abkühlungsverhalten bei unterschiedlichen Injektionsintervallen sowie bei unterschiedlicher Mächtigkeit des Sills. Die Modelle deuten darauf hin, dass für die Bildung der Magmakammer eine Injektionsrate von mindestens ca. 4 x 10-4 km³/y benötigt wird. Solche Raten sind ebenfalls nötig um eine kontinuierliche Bildung von magmatisch-hydrothermalen Fluiden zu garantieren, denn nur dann können sich hoch vererzte Bereiche in einem kurzen geologischen Zeitraum von 50.000 bis 100.000 Jahren bilden, so wie es für porphyrische Kupferlagerstätten angenommen wird. Die höchsten Kupfergehalte bilden sich in Regionen mit steilem Temperaturgradient, also vor allem in Bereichen, wo das magmatisch-hydrothermale Fluid auf kältere meteorische Fluide trifft. KW - fluid inclusions KW - numerical modeling KW - Flüssigkeitseinschlüsse KW - numerische Modellierung Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-434843 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Stoltnow, Malte A1 - Weis, Philipp A1 - Korges, Maximilian T1 - Hydrological controls on base metal precipitation and zoning at the porphyry-epithermal transition constrained by numerical modeling JF - Scientific reports N2 - Ore precipitation in porphyry copper systems is generally characterized by metal zoning (Cu-Mo to Zn-Pb-Ag), which is suggested to be variably related to solubility decreases during fluid cooling, fluid-rock interactions, partitioning during fluid phase separation and mixing with external fluids. Here, we present new advances of a numerical process model by considering published constraints on the temperature- and salinity-dependent solubility of Cu, Pb and Zn in the ore fluid. We quantitatively investigate the roles of vapor-brine separation, halite saturation, initial metal contents, fluid mixing and remobilization as first-order controls of the physical hydrology on ore formation. The results show that the magmatic vapor and brine phases ascend with different residence times but as miscible fluid mixtures, with salinity increases generating metal-undersaturated bulk fluids. The release rates of magmatic fluids affect the location of the thermohaline fronts, leading to contrasting mechanisms for ore precipitation: higher rates result in halite saturation without significant metal zoning, lower rates produce zoned ore shells due to mixing with meteoric water. Varying metal contents can affect the order of the final metal precipitation sequence. Redissolution of precipitated metals results in zoned ore shell patterns in more peripheral locations and also decouples halite saturation from ore precipitation. Y1 - 2023 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30572-5 SN - 2045-2322 VL - 13 IS - 1 PB - Springer Nature CY - London ER -