TY - JOUR A1 - Wambura, Frank Joseph A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Graef, Frieder T1 - Analysis of infield rainwater harvesting and land use change impacts on the hydrologic cycle in the Wami River basin JF - Agricultural water management : an international journal N2 - The management of water resources in a river basin experiencing the expansion of agricultural activities requires a proper understanding of impacts on its hydrologic cycle. This study focused on the analysis of impacts of infield rainwater harvesting (IRWH) and future agricultural expansion as land and water uses change (LWUC) on the hydrologic cycle in the Wami River basin (Tanzania) using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). In the SWAT model, IRWH was implemented by fragmenting rainwater harvesting hydrological response units (HRUs) from cropland HRUs and assigning them as potholes for rainwater impoundment. LWUC was implemented by customizing land cover types and their corresponding model parameters in all original HRUs, and introducing projected water uses in the model. The study thus demonstrated the successful modelling of IRWH and land use change in the SWAT model using HRU fragmentation and customization approaches, respectively. The results indicated that IRWH applications in croplands led to a large increase in evapotranspiration (ET) and the soil water content, and a decrease in percolation, especially in the dry years. However, the average annual streamflow showed negligible changes when IRWH was implemented, even in 50% of current low-coverage croplands in the river basin. Thus, IRWH applications in the river basin are recommended. The results also indicated that LWUC caused huge changes in ET, the soil water content, percolation and the streamflow from the river basin. The average annual streamflow was predicted to decrease by 26% due to LWUC. However, land use change alone without projected water uses was predicted to cause a minor decrease of about 1% in the average annual streamflow. Therefore, further studies on the eco-hydrology of the river basin under various water use scenarios are recommended prior to the expansion of agricultural areas. KW - HRU customization KW - HRU fragmentation KW - Pothole KW - SWAT KW - Water use change Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.02.035 SN - 0378-3774 SN - 1873-2283 VL - 203 SP - 124 EP - 137 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wambura, Frank Joseph A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Improving a distributed hydrological model using evapotranspiration-related boundary conditions as additional constraints in a data-scarce river basin JF - Hydrological processes N2 - Many hydrological models have been calibrated and validated using hydrographs alone. Because streamflow integrates water fluxes in space, many distributed hydrological models tend to have multiple feasible descriptions of hydrological processes. This equifinality usually leads to substantial prediction uncertainty. In this study, additional constraintsnamely, the spatial patterns of long-term average evapotranspiration (ET), shallow groundwater level, and land cover changewere used to investigate the reduction of equifinality and prediction uncertainty in the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in the Wami River basin in Tanzania. The additional constraints were used in the set-up, parameter emulation and calibration of the SWAT model termed an improved hydrological model (IHM). The IHM was then compared with a classical hydrological model (CHM) that was also developed using the SWAT model but without additional constraints. In the calibration, the CHM used only the hydrograph, but the IHM used the hydrograph and the spatial pattern of long-term average ET as an additional constraint. The IHM produced a single, unique behavioural simulation, whereas the CHM produced many behavioural simulations that resulted in prediction uncertainty. The performance of the IHM with respect to the hydrograph was more consistent than that of the CHM, and the former clearly captured the mean behaviour of ET in the river basin. Therefore, we conclude that additional constraints substantially reduce equifinality and prediction uncertainty in a distributed hydrological model. KW - data scarcity KW - equifinality KW - evapotranspiration KW - parameter emulation KW - prediction uncertainty KW - SWAT Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11453 SN - 0885-6087 SN - 1099-1085 VL - 32 IS - 6 SP - 759 EP - 775 PB - Wiley CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Oguntunde, Philip G. A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried T1 - Relationship between rice yield and climate variables in southwest Nigeria using multiple linear regression and support vector machine analysis JF - International Journal of Biometeorology N2 - This study examines the variations of climate variables and rice yield and quantifies the relationships among them using multiple linear regression, principal component analysis, and support vector machine (SVM) analysis in southwest Nigeria. The climate and yield data used was for a period of 36 years between 1980 and 2015. Similar to the observed decrease (P < 0.001) in rice yield, pan evaporation, solar radiation, and wind speed declined significantly. Eight principal components exhibited an eigenvalue > 1 and explained 83.1% of the total variance of predictor variables. The SVM regression function using the scores of the first principal component explained about 75% of the variance in rice yield data and linear regression about 64%. SVM regression between annual solar radiation values and yield explained 67% of the variance. Only the first component of the principal component analysis (PCA) exhibited a clear long-term trend and sometimes short-term variance similar to that of rice yield. Short-term fluctuations of the scores of the PC1 are closely coupled to those of rice yield during the 1986-1993 and the 2006-2013 periods thereby revealing the inter-annual sensitivity of rice production to climate variability. Solar radiation stands out as the climate variable of highest influence on rice yield, and the influence was especially strong during monsoon and post-monsoon periods, which correspond to the vegetative, booting, flowering, and grain filling stages in the study area. The outcome is expected to provide more in-depth regional-specific climate-rice linkage for screening of better cultivars that can positively respond to future climate fluctuations as well as providing information that may help optimized planting dates for improved radiation use efficiency in the study area. KW - Rice yield KW - Climate variables KW - Linear regression KW - Support vector machine KW - NERICA Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-017-1454-6 SN - 0020-7128 SN - 1432-1254 VL - 62 IS - 3 SP - 459 EP - 469 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Fahle, Marcus A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - A guideline for developing an initial hydrological monotoring network as a basis for water management in artificially drained wetlands JF - Irrigation and drainage N2 - Reliable hydrological monitoring is the basis for sound water management in drained wetlands. Since statistical methods cannot be employed for unobserved or sparsely monitored areas, the primary design (first set-up) may be arbitrary in most instances. The objective of this paper is therefore to provide a guideline for designing the initial hydrological monitoring network. A scheme is developed that handles different parts of monitoring and hydrometry in wetlands, focusing on the positioning of surface water and groundwater gauges. For placement of the former, control units are used which correspond to areas whose water levels can be regulated separately. The latter are arranged depending on hydrological response units, defined by combinations of soil type and land use, and the chosen surface water monitoring sites. A practical application of the approach is shown for an investigation area in the Spreewald region in north-east Germany. The presented scheme leaves a certain degree of freedom to its user, allowing the inclusion of expert knowledge or special concerns. Based on easily obtainable data, the developed hydrological network serves as a first step in the iterative procedure of monitoring network optimisation. Copyright (c) 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. KW - monitoring network KW - wetland KW - sampling locations KW - controlled drainage KW - ditch system KW - measurement frequency Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.1744 SN - 1531-0353 SN - 1531-0361 VL - 62 IS - 4 SP - 524 EP - 536 PB - Wiley-Blackwell CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Fahle, Marcus A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried T1 - Estimation of evapotranspiration using diurnal groundwater level fluctuations: Comparison of different approaches with groundwater lysimeter data JF - Water resources research N2 - In wetlands or riparian areas, water withdrawal by plants with access to groundwater or the capillary fringe often causes diurnal groundwater fluctuations. Various approaches use the characteristics of these fluctuations for estimation of daily groundwater evapotranspiration rates. The objective of this paper was to review the available methods, compare them with measured evapotranspiration and assess their recharge assumptions. For this purpose, we employed data of 85 rain-free days of a weighable groundwater lysimeter situated at a grassland site in the Spreewald wetland in north-east Germany. Measurements of hourly recharge and daily evapotranspiration rates were used to assess the different approaches. Our results showed that a maximum of 50% of the day to day variance of the daily evapotranspiration rates could be explained by the approaches based on groundwater fluctuations. Simple and more complex methods performed similarly. For some of the approaches, there were indications that erroneous assumptions compensated each other (e.g., when overestimated recharge counteracted underestimated storage change). We found that the usage of longer time spans resulted in improved estimates of the daily recharge rates and that the estimates were further enhanced by including two night averages. When derived from fitting estimates of recharge or evapotranspiration with according measurements the specific yield, needed to convert changes in water level to water volumes, differed considerably among the methods (from 0.022 to 0.064). Thus, the specific yield can be seen as correction factor that compensates for inadequate process descriptions. KW - evapotranspiration KW - groundwater lysimeter KW - specific yield KW - diurnal signal KW - phreatophytes KW - wetland Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1002/2013WR014472 SN - 0043-1397 SN - 1944-7973 VL - 50 IS - 1 SP - 273 EP - 286 PB - American Geophysical Union CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Natkhin, Marco A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Dannowski, Ralf A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Differentiating between climate effects and forest growth dynamics effects on decreasing groundwater recharge in a lowland region in Northeast Germany JF - Journal of hydrology N2 - Declining groundwater levels in some forested regions in Northeast Germany indicate a reduction in groundwater recharge. Various interlinked aspects, such as changes in climate conditions and changes in forest structure, have been considered as the main factors affecting the regional level of groundwater recharge. For this study, the water balance model WaSiM-ETH was used to calculate groundwater recharge in a 104 km(2) area between 1958 and 2007. Climate impact analysis was driven by observed data from neighbouring meteorological stations. Changes in forest stands were reconstructed from the current status and literature studies. The model-based analysis showed that the average groundwater recharge under forest areas decreased from 1958 to 2007, with a trend of 2.3 mm/yr(2). The most important effect was changing climatic boundary conditions, which made up 53% of the decrease. Declining precipitation is identified as the main factor. Changes in tree age distribution caused 18% of the decrease, and the change of ground vegetation under pines (Pinus sylvestris) accounts for 29%. In respect of the complexity and the interconnectivity of the processes of groundwater recharge, the necessity of using process-oriented distributed models such as WaSiM-ETH is discussed. We conclude that changes in forest stands affecting groundwater recharge could play a significant role in the water balance, especially in regions with a priori low total runoff, this has up to now often remained unquantified. KW - Tree age distribution KW - Ground vegetation KW - Pine KW - WaSiM-ETH Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.005 SN - 0022-1694 SN - 1879-2707 VL - 448 IS - 2 SP - 245 EP - 254 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Fahle, Marcus A1 - Hohenbrink, Tobias Ludwig A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Temporal variability of the optimal monitoring setup assessed using information theory JF - Water resources research N2 - Hydrology is rich in methods that use information theory to evaluate monitoring networks. Yet in most existing studies, only the available data set as a whole is used, which neglects the intraannual variability of the hydrological system. In this paper, we demonstrate how this variability can be considered by extending monitoring evaluation to subsets of the available data. Therefore, we separately evaluated time windows of fixed length, which were shifted through the data set, and successively extended time windows. We used basic information theory measures and a greedy ranking algorithm based on the criterion of maximum information/minimum redundancy. The network investigated monitored surface and groundwater levels at quarter-hourly intervals and was located at an artificially drained lowland site in the Spreewald region in north-east Germany. The results revealed that some of the monitoring stations were of value permanently while others were needed only temporally. The prevailing meteorological conditions, particularly the amount of precipitation, affected the degree of similarity between the water levels measured. The hydrological system tended to act more individually during periods of no or little rainfall. The optimal monitoring setup, its stability, and the monitoring effort necessary were influenced by the meteorological forcing. Altogether, the methodology presented can help achieve a monitoring network design that has a more even performance or covers the conditions of interest (e.g., floods or droughts) best. KW - artificially drained lowland KW - surface water levels KW - hydrometric network design KW - Shannon entropy KW - shallow groundwater tables Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017137 SN - 0043-1397 SN - 1944-7973 VL - 51 IS - 9 SP - 7723 EP - 7743 PB - American Geophysical Union CY - Washington ER - TY - GEN A1 - Gliege, Steffen A1 - Thomas, Björn Daniel A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Hohenbrink, Tobias Ludwig A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried T1 - Modeling the impact of ditch water level management on stream-aquifer interactions N2 - Decreasing groundwater levels in many parts of Germany and decreasing low flows in Central Europe have created a need for adaptation measures to stabilize the water balance and to increase low flows. The objective of our study was to estimate the impact of ditch water level management on stream-aquifer interactions in small lowland catchments of the mid-latitudes. The water balance of a ditch-irrigated area and fluxes between the subsurface and the adjacent stream were modeled for three runoff recession periods using the Hydrus-2D software package. The results showed that the subsurface flow to the stream was closely related to the difference between the water level in the ditch system and the stream. Evapotranspiration during the growing season additionally reduced base flow. It was crucial to stop irrigation during a recession period to decrease water withdrawal from the stream and enhance the base flow by draining the irrigated area. Mean fluxes to the stream were between 0.04 and 0.64 ls(-1) for the first 20 days of the low-flow periods. This only slightly increased the flow in the stream, whose mean was 57 ls(-1) during the period with the lowest flows. Larger areas would be necessary to effectively increase flows in mesoscale catchments. T3 - Zweitveröffentlichungen der Universität Potsdam : Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe - 445 KW - ditch irrigation KW - adaption measure KW - Hydrus-2D KW - required minimum runoff KW - groundwater surface water interaction Y1 - 2018 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-407613 ER - TY - GEN A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Schweigert, Susanne A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Effects of data and model simplification on the results of a wetland water resource management model T2 - Water N2 - This paper presents the development of a wetland water balance model for use in a large river basin with many different wetlands. The basic model was primarily developed for a single wetland with a complex water management system involving large amounts of specialized input data and water management details. The aim was to simplify the model structure and to use only commonly available data as input for the model, with the least possible loss of accuracy. Results from different variants of the model and data adaptation were tested against results from a detailed model. This shows that using commonly available data and unifying and simplifying the input data is tolerable up to a certain level. The simplification of the model has greater effects on the evaluated water balance components than the data adaptation. Because this simplification was necessary for large-scale use, we suggest that, for reasons of comparability, simpler models should always be applied with uniform data bases for large regions, though these should only be moderately simplified. Further, we recommend using these simplified models only for large-scale comparisons and using more specific, detailed models for investigations on smaller scales. T3 - Zweitveröffentlichungen der Universität Potsdam : Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe - 442 KW - wetland KW - water balance KW - water balance model KW - evapotranspiration KW - groundwater level Y1 - 2018 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-407579 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Gliege, Steffen A1 - Thomas, Bjoern D. A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Hohenbrink, Tobias Ludwig A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried T1 - Modeling the Impact of Ditch Water Level Management on Stream-Aquifer Interactions JF - Water N2 - Decreasing groundwater levels in many parts of Germany and decreasing low flows in Central Europe have created a need for adaptation measures to stabilize the water balance and to increase low flows. The objective of our study was to estimate the impact of ditch water level management on stream-aquifer interactions in small lowland catchments of the mid-latitudes. The water balance of a ditch-irrigated area and fluxes between the subsurface and the adjacent stream were modeled for three runoff recession periods using the Hydrus-2D software package. The results showed that the subsurface flow to the stream was closely related to the difference between the water level in the ditch system and the stream. Evapotranspiration during the growing season additionally reduced base flow. It was crucial to stop irrigation during a recession period to decrease water withdrawal from the stream and enhance the base flow by draining the irrigated area. Mean fluxes to the stream were between 0.04 and 0.64 ls(-1) for the first 20 days of the low-flow periods. This only slightly increased the flow in the stream, whose mean was 57 ls(-1) during the period with the lowest flows. Larger areas would be necessary to effectively increase flows in mesoscale catchments. KW - ditch irrigation KW - adaption measure KW - Hydrus-2D KW - required minimum runoff KW - groundwater surface water interaction Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3390/w8030102 SN - 2073-4441 VL - 8 PB - MDPI CY - Basel ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Schweigert, Susanne A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Effects of Data and Model Simplification on the Results of a Wetland Water Resource Management Model JF - Water N2 - This paper presents the development of a wetland water balance model for use in a large river basin with many different wetlands. The basic model was primarily developed for a single wetland with a complex water management system involving large amounts of specialized input data and water management details. The aim was to simplify the model structure and to use only commonly available data as input for the model, with the least possible loss of accuracy. Results from different variants of the model and data adaptation were tested against results from a detailed model. This shows that using commonly available data and unifying and simplifying the input data is tolerable up to a certain level. The simplification of the model has greater effects on the evaluated water balance components than the data adaptation. Because this simplification was necessary for large-scale use, we suggest that, for reasons of comparability, simpler models should always be applied with uniform data bases for large regions, though these should only be moderately simplified. Further, we recommend using these simplified models only for large-scale comparisons and using more specific, detailed models for investigations on smaller scales. KW - wetland KW - water balance KW - water balance model KW - evapotranspiration KW - groundwater level Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3390/w8060252 SN - 2073-4441 VL - 8 PB - MDPI CY - Basel ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Fahle, Marcus A1 - Seyfarth, Manfred T1 - Behavior of water balance components at sites with shallow groundwater tables: Possibilities and limitations of their simulation using different ways to control weighable groundwater lysimeters JF - Agricultural water management : an international journal N2 - The water cycle of sites with shallow groundwater tables is characterized by complex interactions of hydrological and ecological processes. The water balance components, which are subject to diurnal fluctuations, are best measured with groundwater lysimeters. However, the lower boundary condition of such lysimeters affects most of the hydrological variables, particularly when considering short time scales, and has to be defined in such a way as to facilitate realistic simulations. In this paper, different means of controlling the lower boundary condition of groundwater lysimeters were compared with respect to their ability to simulate the behavior of the water balance components properly. Measurements of rain-free periods from a lysimeter station installed in the Spreewald wetland in north-east Germany were evaluated. The most common groundwater lysimeter type is controlled using a Mariotte bottle and sets the groundwater level in the soil monolith to a constant level, which here caused an alteration of the inflow to the lysimeter, with respect to both its value and diurnal behavior. Still, daily evapotranspiration values were realistic and this simple and robust approach may be used for time intervals not shorter than one day. High-resolution measurements can be gained from lysimeters that automatically adjust the groundwater level by a system of pumps and valves on an hourly basis. Still, reliable results were only obtained when the conditions in the lysimeter and the surrounding field, where the target groundwater level was measured, were in accordance. Otherwise (e.g., when the groundwater level differed) an unrealistic inflow behavior evolved. Reasonable results, even for slightly diverging conditions, were gained with a new approach that defined the lower boundary conditions by controlling the inflows and outflows of the lysimeter. This approach further enabled the groundwater level itself to be the study subject, thereby enlarging the field of possible applications of groundwater lysimeters. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. KW - Diurnal fluctuations KW - Evapotranspiration KW - Water storage KW - Inflow and outflow KW - Lysimeter control systems KW - Spreewald wetland Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.09.005 SN - 0378-3774 SN - 1873-2283 VL - 163 SP - 75 EP - 89 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Thomas, Björn A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar A1 - Steidl, Jörg A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried T1 - Long term shift of low flows predictors in small lowland catchments of Northeast Germany JF - Journal of hydrology N2 - Runoff, especially during summer months, and low flows have decreased in Central and Eastern Europe during the last decades. A detailed knowledge on predictors and dependencies between meteorological forcing, catchment properties and low flow is necessary to optimize regional adaption strategies to sustain minimum runoff. The objective of this study is to identify low flow predictors for 16 small catchments in Northeast Germany and their long-term shifts between 1965 and 2006. Non-linear regression models (support vector machine regression) were calibrated to iteratively select the most powerful low flow predictors regarding annual 30-day minimum flow (AM(30)). The data set consists of standardized precipitation (SPI) and potential evapotranspiration (SpETI) indices on different time scales and lag times. The potential evapotranspiration of the previous 48 and 3 months, as well as the precipitation of the previous 3 months and last year were the most relevant predictors for AM(30). Pearson correlation (r(2)) of the final model is 0.49 and if for every year the results for all catchments are averaged r(2) increases to 0.80 because extremes are smoothing out. Evapotranspiration was the most important low flow predictor for the study period. However, distinct long-term shifts in the predictive power of variables became apparent. The potential evapotranspiration of the previous 48 months explained most of the variance, but its relevance decreased during the last decades. The importance of precipitation variables increased with time. Model performance was higher at catchments with a more damped discharge behavior. The results indicate changes in the relevant processes or flow paths generating low flows. The identified predictors, temporal patterns and patterns between catchments will support the development of low flow monitoring systems and determine those catchments where adaption measures should aim more at increasing groundwater recharge. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. KW - Low flow indicator KW - Post-glacial landscape KW - Catchment classification KW - Support vector machine regression KW - Annual 30-day minimum flow KW - Standardized precipitation index Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.12.022 SN - 0022-1694 SN - 1879-2707 VL - 521 SP - 508 EP - 519 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wambura, Frank Joseph A1 - Dietrich, Ottfried A1 - Lischeid, Gunnar T1 - Evaluation of Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Remotely Sensed Evapotranspiration to Infer Information about Hydrological Behaviour in a Data-Scarce Region JF - Water N2 - Information about the hydrological behaviour of a river basin prior to setting up, calibrating and validating a distributed hydrological model requires extensive datasets that are hardly available for many parts of the world due to insufficient monitoring networks. In this study, the focus was on prevailing spatio-temporal patterns of remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) that enabled conclusions to be drawn about the hydrological behaviour and spatial peculiarities of a river basin at rather high spatial resolution. The prevailing spatio-temporal patterns of ET were identified using a principal component analysis of a time series of 644 images of MODIS ET covering the Wami River basin (Tanzania) between the years 2000 and 2013. The time series of the loadings on the principal components were analysed for seasonality and significant long-term trends. The spatial patterns of principal component scores were tested for significant correlation with elevations and slopes, and for differences between different soil texture and land use classes. The results inferred that the temporal and spatial patterns of ET were related to those of preceding rainfalls. At the end of the dry season, high ET was maintained only in areas of shallow groundwater and in cloud forest nature reserves. A region of clear reduction of ET in the long-term was related to massive land use change. The results also confirmed that most soil texture and land use classes differed significantly. Moreover, ET was exceptionally high in natural forests and loam soil, and very low in bushland and sandy-loam soil. Clearly, this approach has shown great potential of publicly available remote sensing data in providing a sound basis for water resources management as well as for distributed hydrological models in data-scarce river basins at lower latitudes. KW - evapotranspiration KW - hydrological behaviour KW - land cover change KW - MODIS ET KW - principal component analysis KW - shallow groundwater Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3390/w9050333 SN - 2073-4441 VL - 9 SP - 297 EP - 315 PB - MDPI CY - Basel ER -