TY - RPRT A1 - Gallego Granados, Patricia A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Selection into Employment and the Gender Wage Gap across the Distribution and Over Time T2 - CEPA Discussion Papers N2 - Using quantile regression methods, this paper analyses the gender wage gap across the wage distribution and over time (1990–2014), while controlling for changing sample selection into full-time employment. Our findings show that the selection-corrected gender wage gap is much larger than the one observed in the data, which is mainly due to large positive selection of women into full-time employment. However, we show that selection-corrected wages of male and female workers at the lower half of the distribution have moderately converged over time. The reason for this development have been changes in the composition of the male full-time employment force over time, which in spite of the rather constant male full-time employment rate, have given place to a small but rising selection bias in male observed wages. In the upper half of the wage distribution, however, neither the observed nor the selection-corrected gender wage gap has narrowed over time. T3 - CEPA Discussion Papers - 15 KW - gender wage gap KW - quantile regression KW - selection into employment Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-441691 SN - 2628-653X IS - 15 ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Frodermann, Corinna A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina A1 - Zucco, Aline T1 - Parental Leave Reform and Long-run Earnings of Mothers T2 - CEPA Discussion Papers N2 - Paid parental leave schemes have been shown to increase women’s employment rates but decrease their wages in case of extended leave durations. In view of these potential trade-offs, many countries are discussing the optimal design of parental leave policies. We analyze the impact of a major parental leave reform on mothers’ long-term earnings. The 2007 German parental leave reform replaced a means-tested benefit with a more generous earnings-related benefit that is granted for a shorter period of time. Additionally, a “daddy quota” of two months was introduced. To identify the causal effect of this policy on long-run earnings of mothers, we use a difference-in-difference approach that compares labor market outcomes of mothers who gave birth just before and right after the reform and nets out seasonal effects by including the year before. Using administrative social security data, we confirm previous findings and show that the average duration of employment interruptions increased for high-income mothers. Nevertheless, we find a positive long-run effect on earnings for mothers in this group. This effect cannot be explained by changes in working hours, observed characteristics, changes in employer stability or fertility patterns. Descriptive evidence suggests that the stronger involvement of fathers, incentivized by the “daddy months”, could have facilitated mothers’ re-entry into the labor market and thereby increased earnings. For mothers with low prior-to-birth earnings, however, we do not find any beneficial labor market effects of this parental leave reform. T3 - CEPA Discussion Papers - 16 KW - parental leave KW - wages KW - labor supply Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-443188 SN - 2628-653X IS - 16 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Jessen, Jonas A1 - Spiess, C. Katharina A1 - Waights, Sevrin A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - The gender division of unpaid care work throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany JF - German economic review N2 - The COVID-19 pandemic and related closures of day care centres and schools significantly increased the amount of care work done by parents. There has been much speculation over whether the pandemic increased or decreased gender equality in parental care work. Based on representative data for Germany from spring 2020 and winter 2021 we present an empirical analysis that shows that although gender inequality in the division of care work increased to some extent in the beginning of the pandemic, it returned to the pre-pandemic level in the second lockdown almost nine months later. These results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic neither aggravated nor lessened inequality in the division of unpaid care work among mothers and fathers in any persistent way in Germany. KW - gender division KW - domestic work KW - child care KW - day care KW - gender care gap KW - COVID-19 Y1 - 2023 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1515/ger-2022-0003 SN - 1465-6485 SN - 1468-0475 VL - 23 IS - 4 SP - 641 EP - 667 PB - De Gruyter CY - Berlin ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Ilieva, Boryana A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Gender gaps in employment, working hours and wages in Germany BT - trends and developments over the last 35 years JF - CESifo forum Y1 - 2022 UR - https://www.cesifo.org/DocDL/CESifo-Forum-2022-2-ilieva-wrohlich-gender-employment-and-pay-gap-march.pdf SN - 2190-717X SN - 1615-245X VL - 23 IS - 2 SP - 17 EP - 19 PB - Ifo CY - Munich ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Reformen bei Elterngeld und Ehegattensplitting könnten gleichstellungspolitische Impulse setzen T1 - Reforms of parental leave benefits and the taxation of married couples could enhance gender equality JF - Wirtschaftsdienst N2 - Germany is characterised by large gender gaps in the labour market. Both the gender pay gap as well as the gender gap in working hours are among the highest in Europe. Family policy reforms such as increasing the parental leave period that is ear-marked for fathers as well as reducing the high marginal tax rates for secondary earners resulting from the joint taxation of married couples with full income splitting (“Ehegattensplitting”) could help to mitigate the existing gender gaps in the labour market. These reforms are also paramount due to the increasing labour scarcity stemming from the demographic change. Y1 - 2023 U6 - https://doi.org/10.2478/wd-2023-0169 SN - 0043-6275 SN - 1613-978X VL - 103 IS - 9 SP - 600 EP - 602 PB - ZBW CY - Hamburg ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Müller, Kai-Uwe A1 - Neumann, Michael A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Labor supply under participation and hours constraints BT - An extended structural model for policy evaluations T2 - CEPA Discussion Papers N2 - The paper extends a static discrete-choice labor supply model by adding participation and hours constraints. We identify restrictions by survey information on the eligibility and search activities of individuals as well as actual and desired hours. This provides for a more robust identification of preferences and constraints. Both, preferences and restrictions are allowed to vary by and are related through observed and unobserved characteristics. We distinguish various restrictions mechanisms: labor demand rationing, working hours norms varying across occupations, and insufficient public childcare on the supply side of the market. The effect of these mechanisms is simulated by relaxing different constraints at a time. We apply the empirical frame- work to evaluate an in-work benefit for low-paid parents in the German institutional context. The benefit is supposed to increase work incentives for secondary earners. Based on the structural model we are able to disentangle behavioral reactions into the pure incentive effect and the limiting impact of constraints at the intensive and extensive margin. We find that the in-work benefit for parents substantially increases working hours of mothers of young children, especially when they have a low education. Simulating the effects of restrictions shows their substantial impact on employment of mothers with young children. T3 - CEPA Discussion Papers - 3 KW - labor supply KW - hours restrictions KW - involuntary unemployment KW - gender Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-427656 SN - 2628-653X IS - 3 ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Müller, Kai-Uwe A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Does subsidized care for toddlers increase maternal labor supply? BT - Evidence from a large-scale expansion of early childcare T2 - CEPA Discussion Papers N2 - Expanding public or publicly subsidized childcare has been a top social policy priority in many industrialized countries. It is supposed to increase fertility, promote children’s development and enhance mothers’ labor market attachment. In this paper, we analyze the causal effect of one of the largest expansions of subsidized childcare for children up to three years among industrialized countries on the employment of mothers in Germany. Identification is based on spatial and temporal variation in the expansion of publicly subsidized childcare triggered by two comprehensive childcare policy reforms. The empirical analysis is based on the German Microcensus that is matched to county level data on childcare availability. Based on our preferred specification which includes time and county fixed effects we find that an increase in childcare slots by one percentage point increases mothers’ labor market participation rate by 0.2 percentage points. The overall increase in employment is explained by the rise in part-time employment with relatively long hours (20-35 hours per week). We do not find a change in full-time employment or lower part-time employment that is causally related to the childcare expansion. The effect is almost entirely driven by mothers with medium-level qualifications. Mothers with low education levels do not profit from this reform calling for a stronger policy focus on particularly disadvantaged groups in coming years. T3 - CEPA Discussion Papers - 9 KW - childcare provision KW - mother’s labor supply KW - generalized difference-in-difference Y1 - 2019 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-427727 SN - 2628-653X IS - 9 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Elterngeld BT - stärkere gleichstellungspolitische Ausrichtung wünschenswert JF - Ifo-Schnelldienst Y1 - 2023 UR - https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/sd-2023-09-beblo-etal-umverteilung.pdf#page=9 SN - 0018-974X SN - 2199-4455 VL - 76 IS - 9 SP - 9 EP - 11 PB - Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung CY - München ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Sondergeld, Virginia A1 - Wrohlich, Katharina T1 - Women in management and the gender pay gap T2 - CEPA Discussion Papers N2 - We analyze the impact of women’s managerial representation on the gender pay gap among employees on the establishment level using German Linked-Employer-Employee-Data from the years 2004 to 2018. For identification of a causal effect we employ a panel model with establishment fixed effects and industry-specific time dummies. Our results show that a higher share of women in management significantly reduces the gender pay gap within the firm. An increase in the share of women in first-level management e.g. from zero to above 33 percent decreases the adjusted gender pay gap from a baseline of 15 percent by 1.2 percentage points, i.e. to roughly 14 percent. The effect is stronger for women in second-level than first-level management, indicating that women managers with closer interactions with their subordinates have a higher impact on the gender pay gap than women on higher management levels. The results are similar for East and West Germany, despite the lower gender pay gap and more gender egalitarian social norms in East Germany. From a policy perspective, we conclude that increasing the number of women in management positions has the potential to reduce the gender pay gap to a limited extent. However, further policy measures will be needed in order to fully close the gender gap in pay. T3 - CEPA Discussion Papers - 66 KW - gender pay gap KW - women in management KW - board diversity KW - two-way fixed effects KW - linked employer-employee data Y1 - 2023 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-605813 SN - 2628-653X IS - 66 ER -