TY  - JOUR
A1  - Esmaeilishirazifard, Elham
A1  - Usher, Louise
A1  - Trim, Carol
A1  - Denise, Hubert
A1  - Sangal, Vartul
A1  - Tyson, Gregory H.
A1  - Barlow, Axel
A1  - Redway, Keith F.
A1  - Taylor, John D.
A1  - Kremyda-Vlachou, Myrto
A1  - Davies, Sam
A1  - Loftus, Teresa D.
A1  - Lock, Mikaella M. G.
A1  - Wright, Kstir
A1  - Dalby, Andrew
A1  - Snyder, Lori A. S.
A1  - Wuster, Wolfgang
A1  - Trim, Steve
A1  - Moschos, Sterghios A.
T1  - Bacterial adaptation to venom in snakes and arachnida
JF  - Microbiology spectrum
N2  - Notwithstanding their 3 to 5% mortality, the 2.7 million envenomation-related injuries occurring annually-predominantly across Africa, Asia, and Latin America-are also major causes of morbidity. Venom toxin-damaged tissue will develop infections in some 75% of envenomation victims, with E. faecalis being a common culprit of disease; however, such infections are generally considered to be independent of envenomation. 
Animal venoms are considered sterile sources of antimicrobial compounds with strong membrane-disrupting activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria. 
However, venomous bite wound infections are common in developing nations. Investigating the envenomation organ and venom microbiota of five snake and two spider species, we observed venom community structures that depend on the host venomous animal species and evidenced recovery of viable microorganisms from black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) and Indian ornamental tarantula (Poecilotheria regalis) venoms. Among the bacterial isolates recovered from N. nigricollis, we identified two venom-resistant, novel sequence types of Enterococcus faecalis whose genomes feature 16 virulence genes, indicating infectious potential, and 45 additional genes, nearly half of which improve bacterial membrane integrity. 
Our findings challenge the dogma of venom sterility and indicate an increased primary infection risk in the clinical management of venomous animal bite wounds. IMPORTANCE Notwithstanding their 3 to 5% mortality, the 2.7 million envenomation-related injuries occurring annually-predominantly across Africa, Asia, and Latin America-are also major causes of morbidity. Venom toxin-damaged tissue will develop infections in some 75% of envenomation victims, with E. faecalis being a common culprit of disease; however, such infections are generally considered to be independent of envenomation. Here, we provide evidence on venom microbiota across snakes and arachnida and report on the convergent evolution mechanisms that can facilitate adaptation to black-necked cobra venom in two independent E. faecalis strains, easily misidentified by biochemical diagnostics. 
Therefore, since inoculation with viable and virulence gene-harboring bacteria can occur during envenomation, acute infection risk management following envenomation is warranted, particularly for immunocompromised and malnourished victims in resource-limited settings. 
These results shed light on how bacteria evolve for survival in one of the most extreme environments on Earth and how venomous bites must be also treated for infections.
KW  - drug resistance evolution
KW  - extremophiles
KW  - genome analysis
KW  - microbiome
KW  - multidrug resistance
KW  - venom
Y1  - 2022
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02408-21
SN  - 2165-0497
VL  - 10
IS  - 3
PB  - American Society for Microbiology
CY  - Birmingham, Ala.
ER  -