TY  - JOUR
A1  - Pietz, J.
A1  - Fätkenheuer, Brigitte
A1  - Burgard, P.
A1  - Armbruster, M.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Psychiatric disorders in adult patients with early-treated phenylketonuria
Y1  - 1997
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Laucht, Michael
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
T1  - Problems of behavioral and emotional regulation in early infancy : precursors of psychiatric disorders in later childhood?
Y1  - 2007
SN  - 978-1-934019-17-7
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Ihle, Wolfgang
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Blanz, Bernhard
A1  - Reis, Olaf
A1  - Meyer-Probst, Bernhard
T1  - Prevalence, course and risk factors for mental disorders in young adults and their parents in East and West Germany
Y1  - 2001
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Prevalence, course and risk factors for mental disorders
Y1  - 1996
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Pitzer, Martina
A1  - Jennen-Steinmetz, Christine
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Prediction of preadolescent depressive symptoms from child temperament, maternal distress, and gender results of a prospective, longitudinal study
JF  - Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics
N2  - Objective: The delineation of developmental pathways to juvenile depressive symptoms is of major clinical interest because these are known to be predictive for adult mood disorders and for a range of other mental health problems. This study investigates the impact of child temperament and early maternal distress, both of which are known to influence children's emotional development, on preadolescent depression. Methods: In a prospective, longitudinal at-risk sample (163 boys, 178 girls), we assessed temperament at the age of 3 months and at 2 years, 4.5 years, and 8 years, respectively, and chronic maternal distress during infancy. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was used to investigate the prediction of depressive symptoms at the age of 11 years measured by the Child Depression Inventory. In addition, we controlled for psychosocial and obstetric perinatal risks and gender. Results: Psychosocial risks and self-control temperament made significant independent contributions to preadolescent depression, whereas fearful, difficult temperament and obstetric risks were unrelated to depressive outcome. Interestingly, a clear gender difference emerged with a significant prediction from maternal distress only in girls. Conclusions: Our data extend previous findings of a concurrent association between regulative temperament and juvenile depression to a predictive view. Furthermore, the results point toward gender-specific pathways to preadolescent depression and support earlier findings indicating that subclinical maternal distress may exert as detrimental effects on child development as clinical depression.
KW  - preadolescent depression
KW  - temperament
KW  - maternal distress
KW  - gender
Y1  - 2011
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181f4a474
SN  - 0196-206X
VL  - 32
IS  - 1
SP  - 18
EP  - 26
PB  - Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
CY  - Philadelphia
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Zohsel, Katrin
A1  - Baldus, Christiane
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
A1  - Thomasius, Rainer
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Predicting later problematic cannabis use from psychopathological symptoms during childhood and adolescence: Results of a 25-year longitudinal study
JF  - Drug and alcohol dependence : an international journal on biomedical and psychosocial approaches
N2  - Background: Cannabis is the most commonly used illegal substance among adolescents and young adults. Problematic cannabis use is often associated with comorbid psychopathological problems. The purpose of the current study was to elucidate the underlying developmental processes connecting externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in childhood and adolescence with problematic cannabis use in young adulthood. Methods: Data were drawn from the Mannheim Study of Children at Risk, an ongoing epidemiological cohort study from birth to adulthood. For n = 307 participants, symptom scores of conduct/oppositional defiant disorder, attention problems, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and internalizing disorders were available for the periods of childhood (4.5-11 years) and adolescence (15 years). At age 25 years, problematic cannabis use was assessed via clinical interview and a self-rating questionnaire. Results: At age 25 years, problematic cannabis use was identified in n = 28 participants (9.1%). Childhood conduct/oppositional behavior problems were predictive of problematic cannabis use during young adulthood when comorbid symptoms were controlled for. No such effect was found for childhood attention, hyperactivity/impulsivity or internalizing problems. With respect to psychopathological symptoms during adolescence, only attention problems were significantly related to later problematic cannabis use when controlling for comorbidity. Conclusions: The current study highlights the role of conduct/oppositional behavior problems during childhood and attention problems during adolescence in later problematic cannabis use. It sheds more light on the developmental sequence of childhood and adolescence psychopathology and young adult cannabis use, which is a prerequisite for effective prevention approaches. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
KW  - Problematic cannabis use
KW  - Externalizing behavior
KW  - Internalizing behavior
KW  - Childhood
KW  - Adolescence
Y1  - 2016
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.04.012
SN  - 0376-8716
SN  - 1879-0046
VL  - 163
SP  - 251
EP  - 255
PB  - Elsevier
CY  - Clare
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
T1  - Motorische, kognitive und sozial-emotionale Entwicklung von 11jährigen mit frühkindlichen Risikobelastungen: späte Folgen
Y1  - 2002
SN  - 0301-6811
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Zohsel, Katrin
A1  - Buchmann, Arlette F.
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Hohm, Erika
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Brandeis, Daniel
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Mothers' prenatal stress and their children's antisocial outcomes - a  moderating role for the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene
JF  - The journal of child psychology and psychiatry
N2  - ResultsUnder conditions of elevated prenatal maternal stress, children carrying one or two DRD4 7r alleles were at increased risk of a diagnosis of CD/ODD. Moreover, homozygous carriers of the DRD4 7r allele displayed more externalizing behavior following exposure to higher levels of prenatal maternal stress, while homozygous carriers of the DRD4 4r allele turned out to be insensitive to the effects of prenatal stress.
 ConclusionsThis study is the first to report a gene-environment interaction related to DRD4 and prenatal maternal stress using data from a prospective study, which extends earlier findings on the impact of prenatal maternal stress with respect to childhood antisocial behavior.
KW  - Prenatal stress
KW  - antisocial
KW  - conduct disorder
KW  - DRD4
KW  - gene-environment interaction
Y1  - 2014
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12138
SN  - 0021-9630
SN  - 1469-7610
VL  - 55
IS  - 1
SP  - 69
EP  - 76
PB  - Wiley-Blackwell
CY  - Hoboken
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Buchmann, Arlette F.
A1  - Holz, Nathalie
A1  - Boecker-Schlier, Regina
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Rietschel, Marcella
A1  - Witt, Stephanie H.
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
A1  - Brandeis, Daniel
A1  - Zimmermann, Ulrich S.
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Moderating role of FKBP5 genotype in the impact of childhood adversity on cortisol stress response during adulthood
JF  - European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology
N2  - Recent research suggests an important role of FKBP5, a glucocorticoid receptor regulating co-chaperone, in the development of stress-related diseases such as depression and anxiety disorders. The present study aimed to replicate and extend previous evidence indicating that FKBP5 polymorphisms moderate hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function by examining whether FKBP5 rs1360780 genotype and different measures of childhood adversity interact to predict stress-induced cortisol secretion. At age 19 years, 195 young adults (90 males, 105 females) participating in an epidemiological cohort study completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) to assess cortisol stress responsiveness and were genotyped for the FKBP5 rs1360780. Childhood adversity was assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and by a standardized parent interview yielding an index of family adversity. A significant interaction between genotype and childhood adversity on cortisol response to stress was demonstrated for exposure to childhood maltreatment as assessed by retrospective self-report (CTQ), but not for prospectively ascertained objective family adversity. Severity of childhood maltreatment was significantly associated with attenuated cortisol levels among carriers of the rs1360780 CC genotype, while no such effect emerged in carriers of the T allele. These findings point towards the functional involvement of FKBP5 in long-term alterations of neuroendocrine stress regulation related to childhood maltreatment, which have been suggested to represent a premorbid risk or resilience factor in the context of stress-related disorders. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. and ECNR This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.
KW  - FKBP5
KW  - Stress
KW  - HPA
KW  - Cortisol
KW  - Childhood adversity
Y1  - 2014
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.001
SN  - 0924-977X
SN  - 1873-7862
VL  - 24
IS  - 6
SP  - 837
EP  - 845
PB  - Elsevier
CY  - Amsterdam
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Schmid, Brigitte
A1  - Buchmann, Arlette F.
A1  - Trautmann-Villalba, Patricia
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Zimmermann, Ulrich S.
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Maternal stimulation in infancy predicts hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity in young men
JF  - Journal of neural transmission
N2  - Evidence from animal research has demonstrated the effect of early maternal care on the offspring's endocrine and behavioral stress response in adulthood. The present prospective study investigates, in humans, the long-term impact of maternal responsiveness and stimulation during early mother-child interaction on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol response to a psychosocial laboratory stressor in adulthood. The data are from an epidemiological cohort study of the long-term outcome of early risk factors assessed at birth. At age 3 months, mothers and infants were videotaped during a 10-min standardized nursing and playing situation and evaluated by trained raters for maternal stimulation and infant and maternal responsiveness. At age 19 years, 270 participants (146 females, 124 males) completed the Trier Social Stress Test. The results indicated that less maternal stimulation during early interaction at age 3 months predicted diminished plasma ACTH and cortisol increase in response to acute psychosocial stress in male, but not female offspring. In contrast, maternal responsiveness was found to be unrelated to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) reactivity. In accordance with the findings from animal research, the present study provides prospective evidence in humans of a long-term association between early maternal interaction behavior and the offspring's hormonal stress response in young adulthood, suggesting that poor maternal stimulation in early infancy may result in reduced HPA axis reactivity to an acute psychosocial stressor in males.
KW  - ACTH
KW  - Cortisol
KW  - HPA axis
KW  - Mother-infant interaction
Y1  - 2013
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-013-0970-8
SN  - 0300-9564
VL  - 120
IS  - 8
SP  - 1247
EP  - 1257
PB  - Springer
CY  - Wien
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Ihle, Wolfgang
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Boeck, K.
A1  - Fischer, Andreas W.
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Maladaptive coping strategies : antecedents, correlates or consequences of mental disorders?
Y1  - 1999
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Längsschnittforschung zur Entwicklungsepidemiologie psychischer Störungen : Zielsetzung, Konzeption und zentrale Befunde der Mannheimer Risikokinderstudie
N2  - Theoretischer Hintergrund: Zur Erforschung der Entwicklungsepidemiologie psychischer Störungen gilt die prospektive Untersuchung von Risikogruppen als Königsweg. Fragestellung: Beschreibung der Entwicklungsmuster von Kindern mit frühen Belastungen, Ermittlung von Risiko- und Schutzfaktoren für unterschiedliche Entwicklungsresultate und Identifikation von Mechanismen, die differentiellen Verläufen zugrunde liegen. Methode: In einer prospektiven Längsschnittstudie (mit Erhebungswellen im Alter von 0;3, 2, 4 , 8 und 11 Jahren) wurden die Entstehung und der Verlauf von Entwicklungs- und Verhaltensstörungen bei 384 Kindern untersucht. Organische (prä- und perinatale Komplikationen) und psychosoziale Risiken (familiäre Belastungen) wurden in einem zwei- faktoriellen Design variiert. Ergebnisse: Die negativen Folgen früher Risiken waren bis zum Schulalter nachweisbar. Während organische Risiken vor allem die motorische und kognitive Entwicklung beeinträchtigten, konzentrierten sich die Auswirkungen psychosozialer Belastungen auf kognitive und sozial-emotionale Funktionen. Beide Risiken addierten sich in ihren negativen Konsequenzen. Schlussfolgerungen: Frühkindliche Risiken haben spezifische und langfristige Auswirkungen. Kinder mit multiplen Risikobelastungen sind in ihrer Entwicklung am stärksten gefährdet.
Y1  - 2000
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Viana-Wackermann, Paula C.
A1  - Furtado, Erikson F.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Lower P300 amplitude in eight-year-old offspring of alcoholic fathers with a delinquent history
N2  - The aim of the present study was to investigate the P300 amplitude as a possible vulnerability marker in children of alcoholic (COA) fathers with and without paternal delinquency. Event-related potentials (ERPs) of 122 children aged 8 years (63 boys, 59 girls) were compared depending on father's alcoholism subtype: 30 COAs without paternal delinquency, 10 COAs with paternal delinquency, and 82 children of non-alcoholic and non-delinquent fathers. ERPs were recorded from Fz, Cz, and Pz, using an auditory oddball paradigm. Sinus tones of 60 dB HL were presented binaurally at 1,000 Hz (standard stimulus) and 2,000 Hz (target stimulus), at a relative frequency ratio of 80:20. Two trial blocks of 250 stimuli each were collected. Results indicated that only COAs with paternal delinquency displayed significant differences from the control group, characterized by reduced P300 amplitude at frontal site and in the second trial block. Thus, the combination of fathers' alcoholism and delinquency was more likely to relate to attenuated P300 amplitude in the offspring than paternal alcoholism alone. Our results suggest that both alcoholic and delinquent family history appear to play a role in P300 amplitude reduction in the offspring.
Y1  - 2006
UR  - http://www.springerlink.com/content/101492
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-006-0709-8
SN  - 0940-1334
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Ihle, Wolfgang
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Lebensereignisse : Ursache oder Folge von psychischen Störungen.
Y1  - 1997
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Zohsel, Katrin
A1  - Hohm, Erika
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Brandeis, Daniel
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Long-Term Consequences of Early Psychosocial Risks
T1  - Langfristige Folgen früher psychosozialer Risiken
BT  - Mediating Role of the Child Behavior Checklist-Dysregulation Profile
BT  - Child Behavior Checklist-Dysregulationsprofil als vermittelnder Faktor
JF  - Kindheit und Entwicklung
N2  - In einer prospektiven Längsschnittstudie wurden Auswirkungen früher psychosozialer Risiken bis ins junge Erwachsenenalter untersucht und dabei die Rolle von affektiver und behavioraler Dysregulation im Kindesalter als vermittelndem Faktor überprüft. Drei Monate nach der Geburt wurde das Vorliegen von 11 psychosozialen Belastungsfaktoren erfasst. Im Alter von 8 – 15 Jahren wurde dreimal das Child Behavior Checklist-Dysregulationsprofil (CBCL-DP) erhoben. Mit 25 Jahren wurde ein Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview durchgeführt und 309 der Teilnehmer füllten den Young Adult Self-Report aus. Frühe psychosoziale Risiken gingen mit einem erhöhten Risiko für das Vorliegen eines Substanzmissbrauchs im jungen Erwachsenenalter sowie mit erhöhtem externalisierendem und internalisierendem Problemverhalten einher. Der Zusammenhang zwischen frühen psychosozialen Risiken und späterem externalisierendem bzw. internalisierendem Problemverhalten wurde durch das CBCL-DP vermittelt.
N2  - Numerous studies suggested an association between childhood adversities and later increased risk for mental illness. However, most studies have used adults’ retrospective self-reports for assessing adverse childhood experiences. Mechanisms underlying the association between childhood adversities and later psychopathology are not yet well understood. In the Mannheim Study of Children at Risk, we prospectively examined the impact of early psychosocial risks on psychopathology in early adulthood. In addition, we tested the mediating role of childhood affective and behavioral dysregulation. In a total of 384 infants from the Rhine-Neckar region of Germany born between 1986 and 1988, the presence of 11 adverse family factors was assessed by use of a standardized parent interview conducted when the child was 3 months old. At the child’s age of 8, 11, and 15 years, parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The CBCL-Dysregulation Profile (CBCL-DP) was formed by summing up the scores of the syndrome scales of aggressive, inattentive, and anxious/depressed behavior. At the age of 25 years, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) was conducted with n = 307 participants to obtain psychiatric diagnoses for the period of young adulthood. In addition, 309 participants filled out the Young Adult Self-Report (YASR) to assess current externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. With respect to psychiatric diagnoses during young adulthood, early psychosocial risks were associated with a significantly increased probability for suffering from substance abuse/dependence. By contrast, risk was not significantly increased for anxiety, depressive, and personality disorders. In addition, early psychosocial risks significantly predicted externalizing and internalizing behavior problems as measured by the YASR. The CBCL-DP was found to mediate this association. To conclude, our results confirm an association between childhood adversities and psychopathology in adulthood. Hence, findings from retrospective studies can also be replicated by the use of prospective study designs. Affective and behavioral dysregulation as measured by the CBCL-DP seems to be a mediating bridge between early psychosocial risks and long-term adverse consequences. The CBCL-DP may be used to identify children at an enhanced risk for developing chronic mental problems.
KW  - early adversity
KW  - longitudinal study
KW  - Mannheim Study of Children at Risk
KW  - Child Behavior Checklist-Dysregulation Profile
Y1  - 2017
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1026/0942-5403/a000233
SN  - 0942-5403
SN  - 2190-6246
VL  - 26
IS  - 4
SP  - 203
EP  - 209
PB  - Hogrefe
CY  - Göttingen
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Lay, Barbara
A1  - Ihle, Wolfgang
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
T1  - Juvenile-episodic, continued or adult-onset delinquency? Risk conditions analysed in a cohort of children followed up to the age of 25 years
Y1  - 2005
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Hom, Erika
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Jugendliche die frühzeitig rauchen und trinken : eine Risikogruppe?
N2  - Epidemiological studies have reported elevated rates of legal drug consumption among adolescents in Germany. The aim of this study was to ascertain patterns and parameters of smoking and drinking in early-users as well as to examine possible determinants of risky patterns of use. Participants were from a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 384 children at risk. Assessments of adolescent drug consumption as well as of individual and social determinants were obtained at age 15. Adolescents drinking and smoking during the same period (past four weeks) were characterized by more excessive and impulsive consumption and by higher rates of cannabis use. No specific determinants of concurrent use could be found. These findings suggest that adolescents displaying early concurrent tobacco and alcohol use may be at higher risk for substance use problems and should be targeted by prevention programs.
Y1  - 2007
UR  - http://psycontent.metapress.com/content/1661-4747
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1024/1661-4747.55.3.155
SN  - 1661-4747
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
A1  - Treutlein, Jens
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Buchmann, Arlette F.
A1  - Schmidt, Martin
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Jennen-Steinmetz, Christine
A1  - Reitschelb, Marcel
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
T1  - Interactive effects of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene and childhood adversity on depressive symptoms in young adults: Findings from a longitudinal study
Y1  - 2012
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
A1  - Treutlein, Jens
A1  - Blomeyer, Dorothea
A1  - Buchmann, Arlette F.
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Jennen-Steinmetz, Christine
A1  - Rietschel, Marcella
A1  - Banaschewski, Tobias
T1  - Interactive effects of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene and childhood adversity on depressive symptoms in young adults findings from a longitudinal study
JF  - European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology
N2  - Accumulating research suggests a moderating role for the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene (CRHR1) in the association between childhood adversity and adult depression. The present study aims to replicate recent findings using different genetic variants and measures of early adversity assessed both prospectively and retrospectively. Data were collected in the context of an ongoing epidemiological cohort study following the outcome of early risk factors from birth into adulthood. 300 participants (137 males, 163 females) were genotyped for four CRHR1 SNPs (rs7209436, rs110402, rs242924, and rs17689882) and completed the Beck Depression Inventory at ages 19, 22 and 23 years. Childhood adversity was assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and by a standardized parent interview yielding an index of family adversity. Our results indicate that CRHR1 and childhood adversity interacted to predict depressive symptoms in young adults. Specifically, we found that the impact of childhood maltreatment on adult depressive symptoms was significantly higher in individuals (i) with two copies of the CRHR1 TAT haplotype, and (ii) homozygous for the G allele of rs17689882. The interaction was demonstrated for exposure to childhood maltreatment as assessed by retrospective self-report, but not to prospectively ascertain objective family adversity. The present study partially replicates recent findings of a CRHR1 by childhood adversity interaction with regard to adult depression highlighting the subjective characteristics of the environmental pathogen that is operative in this interaction.
KW  - Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene
KW  - Depression
KW  - Maltreatment
KW  - Family adversity
KW  - Young adults
KW  - Gene-environment interaction
Y1  - 2013
U6  - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.06.002
SN  - 0924-977X
VL  - 23
IS  - 5
SP  - 358
EP  - 367
PB  - Elsevier
CY  - Amsterdam
ER  - 
TY  - JOUR
A1  - Becker, Katja
A1  - El-Faddagh, Mahha
A1  - Schmidt, Martin H.
A1  - Esser, Günter
A1  - Laucht, Manfred
T1  - Interaction of dopamine transporter genotype with prenatal smoke exposure on ADHD symptoms
N2  - Objective To demonstrate that children homozygous for the 10-repeat allele of the common dopamine transporter (DAT1) polymorphism who were exposed to maternal prenatal smoke exhibited significantly higher hyperactivity-impulsivity than children without these environmental or genetic risks. Study design We performed a prospective longitudinal study from birth into early adulthood monitoring the long-term outcome of early risk factors. Maternal prenatal smoking was determined during a standardized interview with the mother when the child was 3 months old. At age 15 years, 305 adolescents participated in genotyping for the DAT1 40 base pair variable number of tandem repeats polymorphism and assessment of inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder symptoms with die Kiddie- Sads-Present and Lifetime Version. Results There was no bivariate association between DAT1 genotype, prenatal smoke exposure and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, a significant interaction between DAT1 genotype and prenatal smoke exposure emerged (P =.012), indicating that males with prenatal smoke exposure who were homozygous for the DAT1 10r allele had higher hyperactivity-impulsivity than males from all other groups. In females, no significant main effects of DAT1 genotype or prenatal smoke exposure or interaction effects on any symptoms were evident (all P >.25). Conclusions This study provides further evidence for the multifactorial nature of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and the importance of studying both genetic and environmental factors and their interaction.
Y1  - 2008
SN  - 0022-3476
ER  -