TY - JOUR A1 - Patil, Umesh A1 - Hanne, Sandra A1 - Burchert, Frank A1 - De Bleser, Ria A1 - Vasishth, Shravan T1 - A Computational Evaluation of Sentence Processing Deficits in Aphasia JF - Cognitive science : a multidisciplinary journal of anthropology, artificial intelligence, education, linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology ; journal of the Cognitive Science Society N2 - Individuals with agrammatic Broca's aphasia experience difficulty when processing reversible non-canonical sentences. Different accounts have been proposed to explain this phenomenon. The Trace Deletion account (Grodzinsky, 1995, 2000, 2006) attributes this deficit to an impairment in syntactic representations, whereas others (e.g., Caplan, Waters, Dede, Michaud, & Reddy, 2007; Haarmann, Just, & Carpenter, 1997) propose that the underlying structural representations are unimpaired, but sentence comprehension is affected by processing deficits, such as slow lexical activation, reduction in memory resources, slowed processing and/or intermittent deficiency, among others. We test the claims of two processing accounts, slowed processing and intermittent deficiency, and two versions of the Trace Deletion Hypothesis (TDH), in a computational framework for sentence processing (Lewis & Vasishth, 2005) implemented in ACT-R (Anderson, Byrne, Douglass, Lebiere, & Qin, 2004). The assumption of slowed processing is operationalized as slow procedural memory, so that each processing action is performed slower than normal, and intermittent deficiency as extra noise in the procedural memory, so that the parsing steps are more noisy than normal. We operationalize the TDH as an absence of trace information in the parse tree. To test the predictions of the models implementing these theories, we use the data from a German sentence—picture matching study reported in Hanne, Sekerina, Vasishth, Burchert, and De Bleser (2011). The data consist of offline (sentence-picture matching accuracies and response times) and online (eye fixation proportions) measures. From among the models considered, the model assuming that both slowed processing and intermittent deficiency are present emerges as the best model of sentence processing difficulty in aphasia. The modeling of individual differences suggests that, if we assume that patients have both slowed processing and intermittent deficiency, they have them in differing degrees. KW - Aphasia KW - Non-canonical sentences KW - Sentence-picture matching KW - Eye movements KW - Computational modeling KW - Cognitive architecture KW - Individual differences Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12250 SN - 0364-0213 SN - 1551-6709 VL - 40 SP - 5 EP - 50 PB - Wiley-Blackwell CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Engelmann, Felix A1 - Vasishth, Shravan A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - A framework for modeling the interaction of syntactic processing and eye movement control JF - Topics in cognitive science N2 - We explore the interaction between oculomotor control and language comprehension on the sentence level using two well-tested computational accounts of parsing difficulty. Previous work (Boston, Hale, Vasishth, & Kliegl, 2011) has shown that surprisal (Hale, 2001; Levy, 2008) and cue-based memory retrieval (Lewis & Vasishth, 2005) are significant and complementary predictors of reading time in an eyetracking corpus. It remains an open question how the sentence processor interacts with oculomotor control. Using a simple linking hypothesis proposed in Reichle, Warren, and McConnell (2009), we integrated both measures with the eye movement model EMMA (Salvucci, 2001) inside the cognitive architecture ACT-R (Anderson et al., 2004). We built a reading model that could initiate short Time Out regressions (Mitchell, Shen, Green, & Hodgson, 2008) that compensate for slow postlexical processing. This simple interaction enabled the model to predict the re-reading of words based on parsing difficulty. The model was evaluated in different configurations on the prediction of frequency effects on the Potsdam Sentence Corpus. The extension of EMMA with postlexical processing improved its predictions and reproduced re-reading rates and durations with a reasonable fit to the data. This demonstration, based on simple and independently motivated assumptions, serves as a foundational step toward a precise investigation of the interaction between high-level language processing and eye movement control. KW - Sentence comprehension KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Parsing difficulty KW - Working memory KW - Surprisal KW - Computational modeling Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12026 SN - 1756-8757 VL - 5 IS - 3 SP - 452 EP - 474 PB - Wiley-Blackwell CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Risse, Sarah A1 - Hohenstein, Sven A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - A theoretical analysis of the perceptual span based on SWIFT simulations of the n+2 boundary paradigm JF - Visual cognition N2 - Eye-movement experiments suggest that the perceptual span during reading is larger than the fixated word, asymmetric around the fixation position, and shrinks in size contingent on the foveal processing load. We used the SWIFT model of eye-movement control during reading to test these hypotheses and their implications under the assumption of graded parallel processing of all words inside the perceptual span. Specifically, we simulated reading in the boundary paradigm and analysed the effects of denying the model to have valid preview of a parafoveal word n + 2 two words to the right of fixation. Optimizing the model parameters for the valid preview condition only, we obtained span parameters with remarkably realistic estimates conforming to the empirical findings on the size of the perceptual span. More importantly, the SWIFT model generated parafoveal processing up to word n + 2 without fitting the model to such preview effects. Our results suggest that asymmetry and dynamic modulation are plausible properties of the perceptual span in a parallel word-processing model such as SWIFT. Moreover, they seem to guide the flexible distribution of processing resources during reading between foveal and parafoveal words. KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Computational modelling KW - Perceptual span KW - Preview Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.881444 SN - 1350-6285 SN - 1464-0716 VL - 22 IS - 3-4 SP - 283 EP - 308 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Apel, Jens K. A1 - Revie, Gavin F. A1 - Cangelosi, Angelo A1 - Ellis, Rob A1 - Goslin, Jeremy A1 - Fischer, Martin H. T1 - Attention deployment during memorizing and executing complex instructions JF - Experimental brain research N2 - We investigated the mental rehearsal of complex action instructions by recording spontaneous eye movements of healthy adults as they looked at objects on a monitor. Participants heard consecutive instructions, each of the form "move [object] to [location]''. Instructions were only to be executed after a go signal, by manipulating all objects successively with a mouse. Participants re-inspected previously mentioned objects already while listening to further instructions. This rehearsal behavior broke down after 4 instructions, coincident with participants' instruction span, as determined from subsequent execution accuracy. These results suggest that spontaneous eye movements while listening to instructions predict their successful execution. KW - Assembly task KW - Eye movements KW - Overt attention KW - Rehearsal KW - Sequential instruction KW - Working memory Y1 - 2011 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-011-2827-4 SN - 0014-4819 VL - 214 IS - 2 SP - 249 EP - 259 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hanne, Sandra A1 - Sekerina, Irina A. A1 - Vasishth, Shravan A1 - Burchert, Frank A1 - De Bleser, Ria T1 - Chance in agrammatic sentence comprehension what does it really mean? Evidence from eye movements of German agrammatic aphasic patients JF - Aphasiology : an international, interdisciplinary journal N2 - Background: In addition to the canonical subject-verb-object (SVO) word order, German also allows for non-canonical order (OVS), and the case-marking system supports thematic role interpretation. Previous eye-tracking studies (Kamide et al., 2003; Knoeferle, 2007) have shown that unambiguous case information in non-canonical sentences is processed incrementally. For individuals with agrammatic aphasia, comprehension of non-canonical sentences is at chance level (Burchert et al., 2003). The trace deletion hypothesis (Grodzinsky 1995, 2000) claims that this is due to structural impairments in syntactic representations, which force the individual with aphasia (IWA) to apply a guessing strategy. However, recent studies investigating online sentence processing in aphasia (Caplan et al., 2007; Dickey et al., 2007) found that divergences exist in IWAs' sentence-processing routines depending on whether they comprehended non-canonical sentences correctly or not, pointing rather to a processing deficit explanation. Aims: The aim of the current study was to investigate agrammatic IWAs' online and offline sentence comprehension simultaneously in order to reveal what online sentence-processing strategies they rely on and how these differ from controls' processing routines. We further asked whether IWAs' offline chance performance for non-canonical sentences does indeed result from guessing. Methods Procedures: We used the visual-world paradigm and measured eye movements (as an index of online sentence processing) of controls (N = 8) and individuals with aphasia (N = 7) during a sentence-picture matching task. Additional offline measures were accuracy and reaction times. Outcomes Results: While the offline accuracy results corresponded to the pattern predicted by the TDH, IWAs' eye movements revealed systematic differences depending on the response accuracy. Conclusions: These findings constitute evidence against attributing IWAs' chance performance for non-canonical structures to mere guessing. Instead, our results support processing deficit explanations and characterise the agrammatic parser as deterministic and inefficient: it is slowed down, affected by intermittent deficiencies in performing syntactic operations, and fails to compute reanalysis even when one is detected. KW - Eye movements KW - Non-canonical sentences KW - Agrammatic aphasia KW - Broca's aphasia KW - Chance performance KW - Online and offline processing KW - Sentence comprehension disorders KW - German syntax Y1 - 2011 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2010.489256 SN - 0268-7038 VL - 25 IS - 2 SP - 221 EP - 244 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - JOUR A1 - von der Malsburg, Titus Raban A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Vasishth, Shravan T1 - Determinants of Scanpath Regularity in Reading JF - Cognitive science : a multidisciplinary journal of anthropology, artificial intelligence, education, linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology ; journal of the Cognitive Science Society N2 - Scanpaths have played an important role in classic research on reading behavior. Nevertheless, they have largely been neglected in later research perhaps due to a lack of suitable analytical tools. Recently, von der Malsburg and Vasishth (2011) proposed a new measure for quantifying differences between scanpaths and demonstrated that this measure can recover effects that were missed with the traditional eyetracking measures. However, the sentences used in that study were difficult to process and scanpath effects accordingly strong. The purpose of the present study was to test the validity, sensitivity, and scope of applicability of the scanpath measure, using simple sentences that are typically read from left to right. We derived predictions for the regularity of scanpaths from the literature on oculomotor control, sentence processing, and cognitive aging and tested these predictions using the scanpath measure and a large database of eye movements. All predictions were confirmed: Sentences with short words and syntactically more difficult sentences elicited more irregular scanpaths. Also, older readers produced more irregular scanpaths than younger readers. In addition, we found an effect that was not reported earlier: Syntax had a smaller influence on the eye movements of older readers than on those of young readers. We discuss this interaction of syntactic parsing cost with age in terms of shifts in processing strategies and a decline of executive control as readers age. Overall, our results demonstrate the validity and sensitivity of the scanpath measure and thus establish it as a productive and versatile tool for reading research. KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Scanpaths KW - Language understanding KW - Oculo-motor control KW - Individual differences KW - Aging KW - Development Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12208 SN - 0364-0213 SN - 1551-6709 VL - 39 IS - 7 SP - 1675 EP - 1703 PB - Wiley-Blackwell CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sperlich, Anja A1 - Meixner, Johannes A1 - Laubrock, Jochen T1 - Development of the perceptual span in reading BT - A longitudinal study JF - Journal of experimental child psychology N2 - The perceptual span is a standard measure of parafoveal processing, which is considered highly important for efficient reading. Is the perceptual span a stable indicator of reading performance? What drives its development? Do initially slower and faster readers converge or diverge over development? Here we present the first longitudinal data on the development of the perceptual span in elementary school children. Using the moving window technique, eye movements of 127 German children in three age groups (Grades 1, 2, and 3 in Year 1) were recorded at two time points (T1 and T2) 1 year apart. Introducing a new measure of the perceptual span, nonlinear mixed-effects modeling was used to separate window size effects from asymptotic reading performance. Cross-sectional differences were well replicated longitudinally. Asymptotic reading rate increased monotonously with grade, but in a decelerating fashion. A significant change in the perceptual span was observed only between Grades 2 and 3. Together with results from a cross-lagged panel model, this suggests that the perceptual span increases as a consequence of relatively well established word reading. Stabilities of observed and predicted reading rates were high after Grade 1, whereas the perceptual span was only moderately stable for all grades. Comparing faster and slower readers as assessed at T1, in general, a pattern of stable between-group differences emerged rather than a compensatory pattern; second and third graders even showed a Matthew effect in reading rate and the perceptual span, respectively. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. KW - Longitudinal study KW - Reading development KW - Eye movements KW - Perceptual span KW - Moving window KW - Nonlinear mixed-effects modeling Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.007 SN - 0022-0965 SN - 1096-0457 VL - 146 SP - 181 EP - 201 PB - Elsevier CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Lange, Elke B. A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Differentiating between verbal and spatial encoding using eye-movement recordings JF - The quarterly journal of experimental psychology N2 - Visual information processing is guided by an active mechanism generating saccadic eye movements to salient stimuli. Here we investigate the specific contribution of saccades to memory encoding of verbal and spatial properties in a serial recall task. In the first experiment, participants moved their eyes freely without specific instruction. We demonstrate the existence of qualitative differences in eye-movement strategies during verbal and spatial memory encoding. While verbal memory encoding was characterized by shifting the gaze to the to-be-encoded stimuli, saccadic activity was suppressed during spatial encoding. In the second experiment, participants were required to suppress saccades by fixating centrally during encoding or to make precise saccades onto the memory items. Active suppression of saccades had no effect on memory performance, but tracking the upcoming stimuli decreased memory performance dramatically in both tasks, indicating a resource bottleneck between display-controlled saccadic control and memory encoding. We conclude that optimized encoding strategies for verbal and spatial features are underlying memory performance in serial recall, but such strategies work on an involuntary level only and do not support memory encoding when they are explicitly required by the task. KW - Working memory KW - Serial recall KW - Eye movements Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.772214 SN - 1747-0218 VL - 66 IS - 9 SP - 1840 EP - 1857 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Fernandez, Gerardo A1 - Laubrock, Jochen A1 - Mandolesi, Pablo A1 - Colombo, Oscar A1 - Agamennoni, Osvaldo T1 - Difficulties in predicting upcoming words JF - Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology KW - Eye movements Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2014.892060 SN - 1380-3395 SN - 1744-411X VL - 36 IS - 3 SP - 302 EP - 316 PB - Taylor & Francis Group CY - Philadelphia ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Özkan, Ayşegül A1 - Fikri, Figen Beken A1 - Kırkıcı, Bilal A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Acartürk, Cengiz T1 - Eye movement control in Turkish sentence reading JF - Quarterly journal of experimental psychology : QJEP / EPS, Experimental Psychology Society N2 - Reading requires the assembly of cognitive processes across a wide spectrum from low-level visual perception to high-level discourse comprehension. One approach of unravelling the dynamics associated with these processes is to determine how eye movements are influenced by the characteristics of the text, in particular which features of the words within the perceptual span maximise the information intake due to foveal, spillover, parafoveal, and predictive processing. One way to test the generalisability of current proposals of such distributed processing is to examine them across different languages. For Turkish, an agglutinative language with a shallow orthography-phonology mapping, we replicate the well-known canonical main effects of frequency and predictability of the fixated word as well as effects of incoming saccade amplitude and fixation location within the word on single-fixation durations with data from 35 adults reading 120 nine-word sentences. Evidence for previously reported effects of the characteristics of neighbouring words and interactions was mixed. There was no evidence for the expected Turkish-specific morphological effect of the number of inflectional suffixes on single-fixation durations. To control for word-selection bias associated with single-fixation durations, we also tested effects on word skipping, single-fixation, and multiple-fixation cases with a base-line category logit model, assuming an increase of difficulty for an increase in the number of fixations. With this model, significant effects of word characteristics and number of inflectional suffixes of foveal word on probabilities of the number of fixations were observed, while the effects of the characteristics of neighbouring words and interactions were mixed. KW - Eye movements KW - reading KW - Turkish Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820963310 SN - 1747-0218 SN - 1747-0226 VL - 74 IS - 2 SP - 377 EP - 397 PB - Sage Publ. CY - London ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hartmann, Matthias A1 - Martarelli, Corinna S. A1 - Mast, Fred W. A1 - Stocker, Kurt T1 - Eye movements during mental time travel follow a diagonal line JF - Consciousness and cognition N2 - Recent research showed that past events are associated with the back and left side, whereas future events are associated with the front and right side of space. These spatial-temporal associations have an impact on our sensorimotor system: thinking about one's past and future leads to subtle body sways in the sagittal dimension of space (Miles, Nind, & Macrae, 2010). In this study we investigated whether mental time travel leads to sensorimotor correlates in the horizontal dimension of space. Participants were asked to mentally displace themselves into the past or future while measuring their spontaneous eye movements on a blank screen. Eye gaze was directed more rightward and upward when thinking about the future than when thinking about the past. Our results provide further insight into the spatial nature of temporal thoughts, and show that not only body, but also eye movements follow a (diagonal) "time line" during mental time travel. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. KW - Mental time travel KW - Eye movements KW - Mental time line KW - Spatial-temporal association KW - Future KW - Past KW - Embodied cognition KW - Metaphors KW - Mental number line Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.09.007 SN - 1053-8100 SN - 1090-2376 VL - 30 SP - 201 EP - 209 PB - Elsevier CY - San Diego ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - Zhou, Wei A1 - Shu, Hua A1 - Yusupu, Rizwangul A1 - Miao, Dongxia A1 - Kruegel, Andre A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language JF - Cognition : international journal of cognitive science N2 - It is generally accepted that low-level features (e.g., inter-word spaces) are responsible for saccade-target selection in eye-movement control during reading. In two experiments using Uighur script known for its rich suffixes, we demonstrate that, in addition to word length and launch site, the number of suffixes influences initial landing positions. We also demonstrate an influence of word frequency. These results are difficult to explain purely by low-level guidance of eye movements and indicate that due to properties specific to Uighur script low-level visual information and high-level information such as morphological structure of parafoveal words jointly influence saccade programming. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. KW - Eye movements KW - Morphological structure KW - Landing position KW - Uighur Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.008 SN - 0010-0277 SN - 1873-7838 VL - 132 IS - 2 SP - 181 EP - 215 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Krügel, Andre A1 - Vitu, Francoise A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Fixation positions after skipping saccades - a single space makes a large difference JF - Attention, perception, & psychophysics : AP&P ; a journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc. N2 - During reading, saccadic eye movements are generated to shift words into the center of the visual field for lexical processing. Recently, Krugel and Engbert (Vision Research 50:1532-1539, 2010) demonstrated that within-word fixation positions are largely shifted to the left after skipped words. However, explanations of the origin of this effect cannot be drawn from normal reading data alone. Here we show that the large effect of skipped words on the distribution of within-word fixation positions is primarily based on rather subtle differences in the low-level visual information acquired before saccades. Using arrangements of "x" letter strings, we reproduced the effect of skipped character strings in a highly controlled single-saccade task. Our results demonstrate that the effect of skipped words in reading is the signature of a general visuomotor phenomenon. Moreover, our findings extend beyond the scope of the widely accepted range-error model, which posits that within-word fixation positions in reading depend solely on the distances of target words. We expect that our results will provide critical boundary conditions for the development of visuomotor models of saccade planning during reading. KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Motor control KW - Skipping Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-012-0365-1 SN - 1943-3921 VL - 74 IS - 8 SP - 1556 EP - 1561 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Hohenstein, Sven A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - McDonald, Scott A. T1 - How preview space/time translates into preview cost/benefit for fixation durations during reading JF - The quarterly journal of experimental psychology N2 - Eye-movement control during reading depends on foveal and parafoveal information. If the parafoveal preview of the next word is suppressed, reading is less efficient. A linear mixed model (LMM) reanalysis of McDonald (2006) confirmed his observation that preview benefit may be limited to parafoveal words that have been selected as the saccade target. Going beyond the original analyses, in the same LMM, we examined how the preview effect (i.e., the difference in single-fixation duration, SFD, between random-letter and identical preview) depends on the gaze duration on the pretarget word and on the amplitude of the saccade moving the eye onto the target word. There were two key results: (a) The shorter the saccade amplitude (i.e., the larger preview space), the shorter a subsequent SFD with an identical preview; this association was not observed with a random-letter preview. (b) However, the longer the gaze duration on the pretarget word, the longer the subsequent SFD on the target, with the difference between random-letter string and identical previews increasing with preview time. A third patternincreasing cost of a random-letter string in the parafovea associated with shorter saccade amplitudeswas observed for target gaze durations. Thus, LMMs revealed that preview effects, which are typically summarized under preview benefit, are a complex mixture of preview cost and preview benefit and vary with preview space and preview time. The consequence for reading is that parafoveal preview may not only facilitate, but also interfere with lexical access. KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Preview effects KW - Linear mixed model KW - Boundary paradigm Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.658073 SN - 1747-0218 SN - 1747-0226 VL - 66 IS - 3 SP - 581 EP - 600 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - ICAT: a computational model for the adaptive control of fixation durations JF - Psychonomic bulletin & review : a journal of the Psychonomic Society N2 - Eye movements depend on cognitive processes related to visual information processing. Much has been learned about the spatial selection of fixation locations, while the principles governing the temporal control (fixation durations) are less clear. Here, we review current theories for the control of fixation durations in tasks like visual search, scanning, scene perception, and reading and propose a new model for the control of fixation durations. We distinguish two local principles from one global principle of control. First, an autonomous saccade timer initiates saccades after random time intervals (local-I). Second, foveal inhibition permits immediate prolongation of fixation durations by ongoing processing (local-II). Third, saccade timing is adaptive, so that the mean timer value depends on task requirements and fixation history (Global). We demonstrate by numerical simulations that our model qualitatively reproduces patterns of mean fixation durations and fixation duration distributions observed in typical experiments. When combined with assumptions of saccade target selection and oculomotor control, the model accounts for both temporal and spatial aspects of eye movement control in two versions of a visual search task. We conclude that the model provides a promising framework for the control of fixation durations in saccadic tasks. KW - Computational modeling KW - Eye movements KW - Adaptive control KW - Fixation duration Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0575-0 SN - 1069-9384 SN - 1531-5320 VL - 21 IS - 4 SP - 907 EP - 934 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rothkegel, Lars Oliver Martin A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Schütt, Heiko Herbert A1 - Wichmann, Felix A. A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Influence of initial fixation position in scene viewing JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. KW - Visual scanpath KW - Visual attention KW - Inhibition of return KW - Eye movements KW - Saliency Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2016.09.012 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 129 SP - 33 EP - 49 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hohenstein, Sven A1 - Matuschek, Hannes A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Linked linear mixed models: A joint analysis of fixation locations and fixation durations in natural reading JF - Psychonomic bulletin & review : a journal of the Psychonomic Society N2 - The complexity of eye-movement control during reading allows measurement of many dependent variables, the most prominent ones being fixation durations and their locations in words. In current practice, either variable may serve as dependent variable or covariate for the other in linear mixed models (LMMs) featuring also psycholinguistic covariates of word recognition and sentence comprehension. Rather than analyzing fixation location and duration with separate LMMs, we propose linking the two according to their sequential dependency. Specifically, we include predicted fixation location (estimated in the first LMM from psycholinguistic covariates) and its associated residual fixation location as covariates in the second, fixation-duration LMM. This linked LMM affords a distinction between direct and indirect effects (mediated through fixation location) of psycholinguistic covariates on fixation durations. Results confirm the robustness of distributed processing in the perceptual span. They also offer a resolution of the paradox of the inverted optimal viewing position (IOVP) effect (i.e., longer fixation durations in the center than at the beginning and end of words) although the opposite (i.e., an OVP effect) is predicted from default assumptions of psycholinguistic processing efficiency: The IOVP effect in fixation durations is due to the residual fixation-location covariate, presumably driven primarily by saccadic error, and the OVP effect (at least the left part of it) is uncovered with the predicted fixation-location covariate, capturing the indirect effects of psycholinguistic covariates. We expect that linked LMMs will be useful for the analysis of other dynamically related multiple outcomes, a conundrum of most psychonomic research. KW - Linear mixed model KW - Model linkage KW - Eye movements KW - Reading Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1138-y SN - 1069-9384 SN - 1531-5320 VL - 24 SP - 637 EP - 651 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Silva, Renita A1 - Gerth, Sabrina A1 - Clahsen, Harald T1 - Morphological constraints in children's spoken language comprehension - a visual world study of plurals inside compounds in English JF - Cognition : international journal of cognitive science N2 - Many previous studies have shown that the human language processor is capable of rapidly integrating information from different sources during reading or listening. Yet, little is known about how this ability develops from child to adulthood. To gain insight into how children (in comparison to adults) handle different kinds of linguistic information during on-line language comprehension, the current study investigates a well-known morphological phenomenon that is subject to both structural and semantic constraints, the plurals-in-compounds effect, i.e. the dislike of plural (specifically regular plural) modifiers inside compounds (e.g. rats eater). We examined 96 seven-to-twelve-year-old children and a control group of 32 adults measuring their eye-gaze changes in response to compound-internal plural and singular forms. Our results indicate that children rely more upon structural properties of language (in the present case, morphological cues) early in development and that the ability to efficiently integrate information from multiple sources takes time for children to reach adult-like levels. KW - Developmental morphology KW - Compounding KW - Visual world paradigm KW - Eye movements KW - Morphological processing Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.08.003 SN - 0010-0277 SN - 1873-7838 VL - 129 IS - 2 SP - 457 EP - 469 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hyona, Jukka A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - Vainio, Seppo T1 - Morphological structure influences the initial landing position in words during reading Finnish JF - The quarterly journal of experimental psychology N2 - The preferred viewing location in words [Rayner, K. (1979). Eye guidance in reading: Fixation locations within words. Perception, 8, 21–30] during reading is near the word centre. Parafoveal word length information is utilized to guide the eyes toward it. A recent study by Yan and colleagues [Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., Yusupu, R., Miao, D., Krügel, A., & Kliegl, R. (2014). Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language. Cognition, 132, 181–215] demonstrated that the word’s morphological structure may also be used in saccadic targeting. The study was conducted in a morphologically rich language, Uighur. The present study aimed at replicating their main findings in another morphologically rich language, Finnish. Similarly to Yan et al., it was found that the initial fixation landed closer to the word beginning for morphologically complex than for monomorphemic words. Word frequency, saccade launch site, and word length were also found to influence the initial landing position. It is concluded that in addition to low-level factors (word length and saccade launch site), also higher level factors related to the word’s morphological structure and frequency may be utilized in saccade programming during reading. KW - Eye movements KW - Morphological structure KW - Reading KW - Saccades KW - Word frequency Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1267233 SN - 1747-0218 SN - 1747-0226 VL - 71 IS - 1 SP - 122 EP - 130 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hyönä, Jukka A1 - Heikkilä, Timo T. A1 - Vainio, Seppo A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Parafoveal access to word stem during reading BT - an eye movement study JF - Cognition : international journal of cognitive science N2 - Previous studies (Hyona, Yan, & Vainio, 2018; Yan et al., 2014) have demonstrated that in morphologically rich languages a word's morphological status is processed parafoveally to be used in modulating saccadic programming in reading. In the present parafoveal preview study conducted in Finnish, we examined the exact nature of this effect by comparing reading of morphologically complex words (a stem + two suffixes) to that of monomorphemic words. In the preview-change condition, the final 3-4 letters were replaced with other letters making the target word a pseudoword; for suffixed words, the word stem remained intact but the suffix information was unavailable; for monomorphemic words, only part of the stem was parafoveally available. Three alternative predictions were put forth. According to the first alternative, the morphological effect in initial fixation location is due to parafoveally perceiving the suffix as a highly frequent letter cluster and then adjusting the saccade program to land closer to the word beginning for suffixed than monomorphemic words. The second alternative, the processing difficulty hypothesis, assumes a morphological complexity effect: suffixed words are more complex than monomorphemic words. Therefore, the attentional window is narrower and the saccade is shorter. The third alternative posits that the effect reflects parafoveal access to the word's stem. The results for the initial fixation location and fixation durations were consistent with the parafoveal stem-access view. KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Morphological complexity KW - Parafoveal processing KW - Display change KW - Initial fixation location Y1 - 2021 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104547 SN - 0010-0277 SN - 1873-7838 VL - 208 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tsai, Jie-Li A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Yan, Ming T1 - Parafoveal semantic information extraction in traditional Chinese reading JF - Acta psychologica : international journal of psychonomics N2 - Semantic information extraction from the parafovea has been reported only in simplified Chinese for a special subset of characters and its generalizability has been questioned. This study uses traditional Chinese, which differs from simplified Chinese in visual complexity and in mapping semantic forms, to demonstrate access to parafoveal semantic information during reading of this script. Preview duration modulates various types (identical, phonological, and unrelated) of parafoveal information extraction. Parafoveal semantic extraction is more elusive in English; therefore, we conclude that such effects in Chinese are presumably caused by substantial cross-language differences from alphabetic scripts. The property of Chinese characters carrying rich lexical information in a small region provides the possibility of semantic extraction in the parafovea. KW - Semantic preview benefit KW - Chinese reading KW - Eye movements Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.06.004 SN - 0001-6918 SN - 1873-6297 VL - 141 IS - 1 SP - 17 EP - 23 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Ohl, Sven A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Revealing the time course of signals influencing the generation of JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. N2 - Saccadic eye movements are frequently followed by smaller secondary saccades which are generally assumed to correct for the error in primary saccade landing position. However, secondary saccades can also occur after accurate primary saccades and they are often as small as microsaccades, therefore raising the need to further scrutinize the processes involved in secondary saccade generation. Following up a previous study, we analyzed secondary saccades using rate analysis which allows us to quantify experimental effects as shifts in distributions, therefore going beyond comparisons of mean differences. We use Aalen’s additive hazards model to delineate the time course of key influences on the secondary saccade rate. In addition to the established effect of primary saccade error, we observed a time-varying influence of under- vs. overshooting – with a higher risk of generating secondary saccades following undershoots. Moreover, increasing target eccentricity influenced the programming of secondary saccades, therefore demonstrating that error-unrelated variables co-determine secondary saccade programs. Our results provide new insights into the generative mechanisms of small saccades during postsaccadic fixation that need to be accounted for by secondary saccade models. KW - Eye movements KW - Corrective saccades KW - Secondary saccades KW - Rate analysis KW - Survival analysis Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2016.06.007 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 124 SP - 52 EP - 58 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Laurinavichyute, Anna A1 - Sekerina, Irina A. A1 - Alexeeva, Svetlana A1 - Bagdasaryan, Kristine A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Russian Sentence Corpus: Benchmark measures of eye movements in reading in Russian JF - Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society N2 - This article introduces a new corpus of eye movements in silent readingthe Russian Sentence Corpus (RSC). Russian uses the Cyrillic script, which has not yet been investigated in cross-linguistic eye movement research. As in every language studied so far, we confirmed the expected effects of low-level parameters, such as word length, frequency, and predictability, on the eye movements of skilled Russian readers. These findings allow us to add Slavic languages using Cyrillic script (exemplified by Russian) to the growing number of languages with different orthographies, ranging from the Roman-based European languages to logographic Asian ones, whose basic eye movement benchmarks conform to the universal comparative science of reading (Share, 2008). We additionally report basic descriptive corpus statistics and three exploratory investigations of the effects of Russian morphology on the basic eye movement measures, which illustrate the kinds of questions that researchers can answer using the RSC. The annotated corpus is freely available from its project page at the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/x5q2r/. KW - Reading KW - Eye movements KW - Russian KW - Ambiguity KW - Part of speech KW - Corpus Y1 - 2019 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1051-6 SN - 1554-351X SN - 1554-3528 VL - 51 IS - 3 SP - 1161 EP - 1178 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Pan, Jinger A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - Laubrock, Jochen A1 - Shu, Hua A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Saccade-target selection of dyslexic children when reading Chinese JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. N2 - This study investigates the eye movements of dyslexic children and their age-matched controls when reading Chinese. Dyslexic children exhibited more and longer fixations than age-matched control children, and an increase of word length resulted in a greater increase in the number of fixations and gaze durations for the dyslexic than for the control readers. The report focuses on the finding that there was a significant difference between the two groups in the fixation landing position as a function of word length in single-fixation cases, while there was no such difference in the initial fixation of multi-fixation cases. We also found that both groups had longer incoming saccade amplitudes while the launch sites were closer to the word in single fixation cases than in multi-fixation cases. Our results suggest that dyslexic children's inefficient lexical processing, in combination with the absence of orthographic word boundaries in Chinese, leads them to select saccade targets at the beginning of words conservatively. These findings provide further evidence for parafoveal word segmentation during reading of Chinese sentences. KW - Chinese KW - Dyslexic children KW - Eye movements KW - Saccade-target selection KW - Reading Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2014.01.014 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 97 SP - 24 EP - 30 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sinn, Petra A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Saccadic facilitation by modulation of microsaccades in natural backgrounds JF - Attention, perception, & psychophysics : AP&P ; a journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc. N2 - Saccades move objects of interest into the center of the visual field for high-acuity visual analysis. White, Stritzke, and Gegenfurtner (Current Biology, 18, 124-128, 2008) have shown that saccadic latencies in the context of a structured background are much shorter than those with an unstructured background at equal levels of visibility. This effect has been explained by possible preactivation of the saccadic circuitry whenever a structured background acts as a mask for potential saccade targets. Here, we show that background textures modulate rates of microsaccades during visual fixation. First, after a display change, structured backgrounds induce a stronger decrease of microsaccade rates than do uniform backgrounds. Second, we demonstrate that the occurrence of a microsaccade in a critical time window can delay a subsequent saccadic response. Taken together, our findings suggest that microsaccades contribute to the saccadic facilitation effect, due to a modulation of microsaccade rates by properties of the background. KW - Eye movements KW - Microsaccade KW - Saccade latency KW - Background texture KW - Saccadic facilitation effect Y1 - 2011 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-011-0107-9 SN - 1943-3921 VL - 73 IS - 4 SP - 1029 EP - 1033 PB - Springer CY - New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - von der Malsburg, Titus Raban A1 - Vasishth, Shravan T1 - Scanpaths reveal syntactic underspecification and reanalysis strategies JF - Language and cognitive processes N2 - What theories best characterise the parsing processes triggered upon encountering ambiguity, and what effects do these processes have on eye movement patterns in reading? The present eye-tracking study, which investigated processing of attachment ambiguities of an adjunct in Spanish, suggests that readers sometimes underspecify attachment to save memory resources, consistent with the good-enough account of parsing. Our results confirm a surprising prediction of the good-enough account: high-capacity readers commit to an attachment decision more often than low-capacity participants, leading to more errors and a greater need to reanalyse in garden-path sentences. These results emerged only when we separated functionally different types of regressive eye movements using a scanpath analysis; conventional eye-tracking measures alone would have led to different conclusions. The scanpath analysis also showed that rereading was the dominant strategy for recovering from garden-pathing. Our results may also have broader implications for models of reading processes: reanalysis effects in eye movements occurred late, which suggests that the coupling of oculo-motor control and the parser may not be as tight as assumed in current computational models of eye movement control in reading. KW - Reading KW - Eye movements KW - Scanpaths KW - Parsing KW - Reanalysis KW - Individual differences KW - Working memory KW - Underspecification Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2012.728232 SN - 0169-0965 SN - 1464-0732 VL - 28 IS - 10 SP - 1545 EP - 1578 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - INPR A1 - Murray, Wayne S. A1 - Fischer, Martin H. A1 - Tatler, Benjamin W. T1 - Serial and parallel processes in eye movement control - current controversies and future directions T2 - The quarterly journal of experimental psychology N2 - In this editorial for the Special Issue on Serial and Parallel Processing in Reading we explore the background to the current debate concerning whether the word recognition processes in reading are strictly serialsequential or take place in an overlapping parallel fashion. We consider the history of the controversy and some of the underlying assumptions, together with an analysis of the types of evidence and arguments that have been adduced to both sides of the debate, concluding that both accounts necessarily presuppose some weakening of, or elasticity in, the eyemind assumption. We then consider future directions, both for reading research and for scene viewing, and wrap up the editorial with a brief overview of the following articles and their conclusions. KW - Serial and parallel KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Scene perception KW - Modality KW - Modelling KW - Eyemind assumption KW - Decoupling KW - Alan Kennedy Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.759979 SN - 1747-0218 VL - 66 IS - 3 SP - 417 EP - 428 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sinn, Petra A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Small saccades versus microsaccades: Experimental distinction and model-based unification JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. N2 - Natural vision is characterized by alternating sequences of rapid gaze shifts (saccades) and fixations. During fixations, microsaccades and slower drift movements occur spontaneously, so that the eye is never motionless. Theoretical models of fixational eye movements predict that microsaccades are dynamically coupled to slower drift movements generated immediately before microsaccades, which might be used as a criterion to distinguish microsaccades from small voluntary saccades. Here we investigate a sequential scanning task, where participants generate goal-directed saccades and microsaccades with overlapping amplitude distributions. We show that properties of microsaccades are correlated with precursory drift motion, while amplitudes of goal-directed saccades do not dependent on previous drift epochs. We develop and test a mathematical model that integrates goal-directed and fixational eye movements, including microsaccades. Using model simulations, we reproduce the experimental finding of correlations within fixational eye movement components (i.e., between physiological drift and microsaccades) but not between goal-directed saccades and fixational drift motion. These results lend support to a functional difference between microsaccades and goal-directed saccades, while, at the same time, both types of behavior may be part of an oculomotor continuum that is quantitatively described by our mathematical model. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. KW - Eye movements KW - Visual fixation KW - Microsaccades KW - Mathematical model Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2015.05.012 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 118 SP - 132 EP - 143 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Cajar, Anke A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Laubrock, Jochen T1 - Spatial frequency processing in the central and peripheral visual field during scene viewing JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. N2 - Visuospatial attention and gaze control depend on the interaction of foveal and peripheral processing. The foveal and peripheral regions of the visual field are differentially sensitive to parts of the spatial frequency spectrum. In two experiments, we investigated how the selective attenuation of spatial frequencies in the central or the peripheral visual field affects eye-movement behavior during real-world scene viewing. Gaze-contingent low-pass or high-pass filters with varying filter levels (i.e., cutoff frequencies; Experiment 1) or filter sizes (Experiment 2) were applied. Compared to unfiltered control conditions, mean fixation durations increased most with central high-pass and peripheral low-pass filtering. Increasing filter size prolonged fixation durations with peripheral filtering, but not with central filtering. Increasing filter level prolonged fixation durations with low-pass filtering, but not with high-pass filtering. These effects indicate that fixation durations are not always longer under conditions of increased processing difficulty. Saccade amplitudes largely adapted to processing difficulty: amplitudes increased with central filtering and decreased with peripheral filtering; the effects strengthened with increasing filter size and filter level. In addition, we observed a trade-off between saccade timing and saccadic selection, since saccade amplitudes were modulated when fixation durations were unaffected by the experimental manipulations. We conclude that interactions of perception and gaze control are highly sensitive to experimental manipulations of input images as long as the residual information can still be accessed for gaze control. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. KW - Eye movements KW - Scene viewing KW - Spatial frequencies KW - Gaze-contingent displays Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2016.05.008 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 127 SP - 186 EP - 197 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - THES A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne T1 - Temporal and spatial aspects of eye-movement control : from reading to scanning T1 - Zeitliche und räumliche Aspekte der Blicksteuerung : vom Lesen zum Scannen N2 - Eye movements are a powerful tool to examine cognitive processes. However, in most paradigms little is known about the dynamics present in sequences of saccades and fixations. In particular, the control of fixation durations has been widely neglected in most tasks. As a notable exception, both spatial and temporal aspects of eye-movement control have been thoroughly investigated during reading. There, the scientific discourse was dominated by three controversies, (i), the role of oculomotor vs. cognitive processing on eye-movement control, (ii) the serial vs. parallel processing of words, and, (iii), the control of fixation durations. The main purpose of this thesis was to investigate eye movements in tasks that require sequences of fixations and saccades. While reading phenomena served as a starting point, we examined eye guidance in non-reading tasks with the aim to identify general principles of eye-movement control. In addition, the investigation of eye movements in non-reading tasks helped refine our knowledge about eye-movement control during reading. Our approach included the investigation of eye movements in non-reading experiments as well as the evaluation and development of computational models. I present three main results : First, oculomotor phenomena during reading can also be observed in non-reading tasks (Chapter 2 & 4). Oculomotor processes determine the fixation position within an object. The fixation position, in turn, modulates both the next saccade target and the current fixation duration. Second, predicitions of eye-movement models based on sequential attention shifts were falsified (Chapter 3). In fact, our results suggest that distributed processing of multiple objects forms the basis of eye-movement control. Third, fixation durations are under asymmetric control (Chapter 4). While increasing processing demands immediately prolong fixation durations, decreasing processing demands reduce fixation durations only with a temporal delay. We propose a computational model ICAT to account for asymmetric control. In this model, an autonomous timer initiates saccades after random time intervals independent of ongoing processing. However, processing demands that are higher than expected inhibit the execution of the next saccade and, thereby, prolong the current fixation. On the other hand, lower processing demands will not affect the duration before the next saccade is executed. Since the autonomous timer adjusts to expected processing demands from fixation to fixation, a decrease in processing demands may lead to a temporally delayed reduction of fixation durations. In an extended version of ICAT, we evaluated its performance while simulating both temporal and spatial aspects of eye-movement control. The eye-movement phenomena investigated in this thesis have now been observed in a number of different tasks, which suggests that they represent general principles of eye guidance. I propose that distributed processing of the visual input forms the basis of eye-movement control, while fixation durations are controlled by the principles outlined in ICAT. In addition, oculomotor control contributes considerably to the variability observed in eye movements. Interpretations for the relation between eye movements and cognition strongly benefit from a precise understanding of this interplay. N2 - Blickbewegungen stellen ein wichtiges Instrument dar, um kognitive Prozesse zu untersuchen. In den meisten Paradigmen ist allerdings wenig über die Entstehung von Sakkaden und Fixationen bekannt. Insbesondere die Kontrolle der Fixationsdauern wurde häufig außer acht gelassen. Eine wesentliche Ausnahme stellt die Leseforschung dar, in der sowohl zeitlichliche als auch räumliche Aspekte der Blickbewegungssteuerung im Detail betrachtet wurden. Dabei war der wissenschaftliche Diskurs durch drei Kontroversen gekennzeichnet, die untersuchten, (i), welchen Einfluss okulomotorische bzw. kognitive Prozesse auf die Blicksteuerung haben, (ii), ob Worte seriell oder parallel verarbeitet werden und, (iii), wie Fixationsdauern kontrolliert werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit zielt im wesentlichen darauf ab, die Dynamik von Fixationssequenzen zu erforschen. Ausgehend von den Erkenntnissen beim Lesen untersuchten wir Blickbewegungen in Nichtlese-Aufgaben, mit dem Ziel allgemeine Prinzipien der Blicksteuerung zu identifizieren. Zusätzlich versuchten wir mit Hilfe dieser Aufgaben, Erkenntnisse über Prozesse beim Lesen zu vertiefen. Unser Vorgehen war sowohl von der Durchführung von Experimenten als auch der Entwicklung und Evaluation computationaler Modelle geprägt. Die Hauptbefunde zeigten: Erstens, okulomotorische Phänomene des Lesens lassen sich in Suchaufgaben ohne Wortmaterial replizieren (Kapitel 2 & 4). Dabei bestimmen okulomotorische Prozesse die Fixationsposition innerhalb eines Objektes. Diese wiederum beeinflusst das nächste Sakkadenziel sowie die Fixationsdauer. Zweitens, wesentliche Vorhersagen von Modellen, in denen Blickbewegungen von seriellen Aufmerksamkeitsverschiebungen abhängen, konnten falsifiziert werden (Kapitel 3). Stattdessen legen unsere Erkenntnisse nahe, dass die Blicksteuerung von der parallelen Verarbeitung mehrerer Objekte abhängt. Drittens, Fixationsdauern werden asymmetrisch kontrolliert (Kapitel 4). Während hohe Verarbeitungsanforderungen Fixationsdauern unmittelbar verlängern können, führen niedrige Verarbeitungsanforderungen nur zeitlich verzögert zu einer Reduktion. Wir schlagen ein computationales Modell ICAT vor, um asymmetrische Kontrolle zu erklären. Grundlage des Modells ist ein autonomer Zeitgeber, der unabhängig von der momentanen Verarbeitung nach zufälligen Zeitintervallen Sakkaden initiiert. Unerwartet hohe Verarbeitungsanforderungen können die Initiierung der nächsten Sakkade hinauszögern, während unerwartet niedrige Verarbeitungsanforderungen den Beginn der nächsten Sakkade nicht verändern. Der Zeitgeber passt sich allerdings von Fixation zu Fixation neuen Verarbeitungsanforderungen an, so dass es zu einer zeitlich verzögerten Reduktion der Fixationsdauern kommen kann. In einer erweiterten Version des Modells überprüfen wir die Kompatibilität ICATs mit einer realistischen räumlichen Blicksteuerung. Die Ähnlichkeit von Blickbewegungsphänomenen über Aufgaben hinweg legt nahe, dass sie auf allgemeinen Prinzipien basieren. Grundlage der Blicksteuerung ist die verteilte Verarbeitung des visuellen Inputs, während die Kontrolle der Fixationsdauer auf den Prinzipien von ICAT beruht. Darüber hinaus tragen okulomotorische Phänomene wesentlich zur Variabilität der Blicksteuerung bei. Ein Verständnis dieses Zusammenspiels hilft entscheidend den Zusammenhang von Blickbewegungen und Kognitionen besser zu verstehen. KW - Blickbewegungen KW - Fixationssequenzen KW - Computationale Modellierung KW - Fixationdauern KW - Fixationspositionen KW - Eye movements KW - fixation sequences KW - computational modeling KW - fixation durations KW - fixation positions Y1 - 2012 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-70206 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Metzner, Paul A1 - von der Malsburg, Titus Raban A1 - Vasishth, Shravan A1 - Roesler, Frank T1 - The Importance of Reading Naturally: Evidence From Combined Recordings of Eye Movements and Electric Brain Potentials JF - Cognitive science : a multidisciplinary journal of anthropology, artificial intelligence, education, linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology ; journal of the Cognitive Science Society KW - Reading KW - Sentence comprehension KW - ERP KW - Eye movements KW - Regressions Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12384 SN - 0364-0213 SN - 1551-6709 VL - 41 SP - 1232 EP - 1263 PB - Wiley CY - Hoboken ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Myachykov, Andriy A1 - Cangelosi, Angelo A1 - Ellis, Rob A1 - Fischer, Martin H. T1 - The oculomotor resonance effect in spatial-numerical mapping JF - Acta psychologica : international journal of psychonomics N2 - We investigated automatic Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect in auditory number processing. Two experiments continually measured spatial characteristics of ocular drift at central fixation during and after auditory number presentation. Consistent with the notion of a spatially oriented mental number line, we found spontaneous magnitude-dependent gaze adjustments, both with and without a concurrent saccadic task. This fixation adjustment (1) had a small-number/left-lateralized bias and (2) it was biphasic as it emerged for a short time around the point of lexical access and it received later robust representation around following number onset. This pattern suggests a two-step mechanism of sensorimotor mapping between numbers and space a first-pass bottom-up activation followed by a top-down and more robust horizontal SNARC Our results inform theories of number processing as well as simulation-based approaches to cognition by identifying the characteristics of an oculomotor resonance phenomenon. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. KW - Attention KW - Embodied cognition KW - Eye movements KW - Oculomotor resonance KW - Ocular drift KW - SNARC Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.09.006 SN - 0001-6918 SN - 1873-6297 VL - 161 SP - 162 EP - 169 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER - TY - THES A1 - Chandra, Johan T1 - The role of the oculomotor control in eye movements during reading N2 - Most reading theories assume that readers aim at word centers for optimal information processing. During reading, saccade targeting turns out to be imprecise: Saccades’ initial landing positions often miss the word centers and have high variance, with an additional systematic error that is modulated by the distance from the launch site to the center of the target word. The performance of the oculomotor system, as reflected in the statistics of within-word landing positions, turns out to be very robust and mostly affected by the spatial information during reading. Hence, it is assumed that the saccade generation is highly automated. The main goal of this thesis is to explore the performance of the oculomotor system under various reading conditions where orthographic information and the reading direction were manipulated. Additionally, the challenges in understanding the eye movement data to represent the oculomotor process during reading are addressed. Two experimental studies and one simulation study were conducted for this thesis, which resulted in the following main findings: (i) Reading texts with orthographic manipulations leads to specific changes in the eye movement patterns, both in temporal and spatial measures. The findings indicate that the oculomotor control of eye movements during reading is dependent on reading conditions (Chapter 2 & 3). (ii) Saccades’ accuracy and precision can be simultaneously modulated under reversed reading condition, supporting the assumption that the random and systematic oculomotor errors are not independent. By assuming that readers increase the precision of sensory observation while maintaining the learned prior knowledge when reading direction was reversed, a process-oriented Bayesian model for saccade targeting can account for the simultaneous reduction of oculomotor errors (Chapter 2). (iii) Plausible parameter values serving as proxies for the intended within-word landing positions can be estimated by using the maximum a posteriori estimator from Bayesian inference. Using the mean value of all observations as proxies is insufficient for studies focusing on the launch-site effect because the method exhibits the strongest bias when estimating the size of the effect. Mislocated fixations remain a challenge for the currently known estimation methods, especially when the systematic oculomotor error is large (Chapter 4). The results reported in this thesis highlight the role of the oculomotor system, together with underlying cognitive processes, in eye movements during reading. The modulation of oculomotor control can be captured through a precise analysis of landing positions. N2 - Zahlreiche Theorien des Lesens gehen davon aus, dass Sakkaden beim Lesen auf die Wortmitte abzielen, um eine optimale Informationsverarbeitung zu erreichen. Die Lan- depositionen von Sakkaden verfehlen oft die Wortmitte und weisen eine hohe Varianz auf, mit einem zusätzlichen systematischen Fehler, der durch die Entfernung zwischen der Sakkadensstartposition und der Position der Wortmitte moduliert wird. Das Verhalten der Okulomotorik, wie es sich in der Statistik der Sakkadenlandepositionen widerspiegelt, erweist sich als sehr robust und wird hauptsächlich von räumlichen Informationen beeinflusst. Daher wird angenommen, dass der Sakkadengenerierungprozess automatisiert ist. Das Hauptziel dieser Dissertation ist es, das Verhalten des okulomotorischen Systems unter verschiedenen Lesebedingungen zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden orthographische Informationen und die Leserichtung manipuliert. Blickbewegungsdaten repräsentieren den okulomotorischen Prozess beim Lesen. Die Herausforderungen beim Verständnis dieser Daten wurden thematisiert. Insgesamt wurden zwei experimentelle Studien und eine Simulationsstudie durchgeführt, die zu folgenden Hauptergebnissen führen: (i) Die Blickbewegungsmuster beim Lesen von Texten mit manipulierter Orthographie veränderten sich spezifisch zur jeweiligen Bedingung, sowohl in zeitlichen als auch räumlichen Kennwerten der Blickbewegungsdaten. Dies legt nahe, dass die okulomotorische Kontrolle beim Lesen an die Manipulation anpasst (Kapitel 2 & 3). (ii) Sowohl Genauigkeit, als auch Präzision von Sakkaden lassen sich durch die veränderte Leserichtung verbessern. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass systematische und zufällige Fehler des okulomotorischen Systems nicht unabhängig sind. Das Bayes’sche Model zur Sakkadenplanung kann die empirischen Ergebnisse approximieren und zeitgleich die verbesserte Sakkadenausrichtung erklären. In der Rechts-nach-Links Lesebedingung verbessert sich die Präzision von sensorischen Informationen, während das a priori erlernte Vorwissen unverändert bleibt (Kapitel 2). (iii) Plausible Parameterwerte, die als Annäherung für intendierte Landepositionen dienen, können durch Verwendung des maximalen a posteriori Schätzers aus der Bayes’schen Inferenz geschätzt werden. Die einfache Mittelwertsmethode weist die stärksten Verzerrung bei der Schätzung der Effektstärke des Launch-Site-Effekts auf. Daher ist sie nicht ausreichend um den Effekt zu beschreiben. Falsch verorterte Fixationen bleiben eine Herausforderung für die derzeit bekannten Schätzmethoden, insbesondere wenn der systematische okulomotorische Fehler groß ist (Kapitel 4). Die in dieser Arbeit berichteten Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Rolle des okulomotorischen Systems, zusammen mit den zugrundeliegenden kognitiven Prozessen, bei der Blicksteuerung beim Lesen. Die Modulation der okulomotorischen Steuerung kann durch die genauen Analysen der Sakkadenlandepositionen erfasst werden. T2 - Die Rolle der Okulomotorik in Blickbewegungen beim Lesen KW - Oculomotor control KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Blickbewegungen KW - Okulomotorik KW - Lesen Y1 - 2020 U6 - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-475930 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hartmann, Matthias A1 - Laubrock, Jochen A1 - Fischer, Martin H. T1 - The visual number world BT - a dynamic approach to study the mathematical mind JF - The quarterly journal of experimental psychology N2 - In the domain of language research, the simultaneous presentation of a visual scene and its auditory description (i.e., the visual world paradigm) has been used to reveal the timing of mental mechanisms. Here we apply this rationale to the domain of numerical cognition in order to explore the differences between fast and slow arithmetic performance, and to further study the role of spatial-numerical associations during mental arithmetic. We presented 30 healthy adults simultaneously with visual displays containing four numbers and with auditory addition and subtraction problems. Analysis of eye movements revealed that participants look spontaneously at the numbers they currently process (operands, solution). Faster performance was characterized by shorter latencies prior to fixating the relevant numbers and fewer revisits to the first operand while computing the solution. These signatures of superior task performance were more pronounced for addition and visual numbers arranged in ascending order, and for subtraction and numbers arranged in descending order (compared to the opposite pairings). Our results show that the visual number world-paradigm provides on-line access to the mind during mental arithmetic, is able to capture variability in arithmetic performance, and is sensitive to visual layout manipulations that are otherwise not reflected in response time measurements. KW - Eye movements KW - Mental arithmetic KW - Mental number line KW - Visual world paradigm Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1240812 SN - 1747-0218 SN - 1747-0226 VL - 71 IS - 1 SP - 28 EP - 36 PB - Sage Publ. CY - London ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schad, Daniel A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - The zoom lens of attention simulating shuffled versus normal text reading using the SWIFT model JF - Visual cognition N2 - Assumptions on the allocation of attention during reading are crucial for theoretical models of eye guidance. The zoom lens model of attention postulates that attentional deployment can vary from a sharp focus to a broad window. The model is closely related to the foveal load hypothesis, i.e., the assumption that the perceptual span is modulated by the difficulty of the fixated word. However, these important theoretical concepts for cognitive research have not been tested quantitatively in eye movement models. Here we show that the zoom lens model, implemented in the SWIFT model of saccade generation, captures many important patterns of eye movements. We compared the model's performance to experimental data from normal and shuffled text reading. Our results demonstrate that the zoom lens of attention might be an important concept for eye movement control in reading. KW - Computational modelling KW - Eye movements KW - Foveal load hypothesis KW - Perceptual span KW - Reading KW - Zoom lens model of attention Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2012.670143 SN - 1350-6285 SN - 1464-0716 VL - 20 IS - 4-5 SP - 391 EP - 421 PB - Wiley CY - Hove ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Cunnings, Ian A1 - Patterson, Clare A1 - Felser, Claudia T1 - Variable binding and coreference in sentence comprehension: Evidence from eye movements JF - Journal of memory and language KW - Pronoun resolution KW - Eye movements KW - Reading KW - Memory retrieval Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2013.10.001 SN - 0749-596X SN - 1096-0821 VL - 71 SP - 39 EP - 56 PB - Elsevier CY - San Diego ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Yan, Ming T1 - Visually complex foveal words increase the amount of parafoveal information acquired JF - Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision. N2 - This study investigates the effect of foveal load (i.e., processing difficulty of currently fixated words) on parafoveal information processing. Contrary to the commonly accepted view that high foveal load leads to reduced parafoveal processing efficiency, results of the present study showed that increasing foveal visual (but not linguistic) processing load actually increased the amount of parafoveal information acquired, presumably due to the fact that longer fixation duration on the pretarget word provided more time for parafoveal processing of the target word. It is therefore proposed in the present study that foveal linguistic processing load is not the only factor that determines parafoveal processing; preview time (afforded by foveal word visual processing load) may jointly influence parafoveal processing. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. KW - Reading KW - Eye movements KW - Parafoveal processing KW - Chinese Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2015.03.025 SN - 0042-6989 SN - 1878-5646 VL - 111 SP - 91 EP - 96 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford ER - TY - JOUR A1 - von der Malsburg, Titus Raban A1 - Vasishth, Shravan T1 - What is the scanpath signature of syntactic reanalysis? JF - Journal of memory and language N2 - Which repair strategy does the language system deploy when it gets garden-pathed, and what can regressive eye movements in reading tell us about reanalysis strategies? Several influential eye-tracking studies on syntactic reanalysis (Frazier & Rayner, 1982; Meseguer, Carreiras, & Clifton, 2002; Mitchell, Shen, Green, & Hodgson, 2008) have addressed this question by examining scanpaths, i.e., sequential patterns of eye fixations. However, in the absence of a suitable method for analyzing scanpaths, these studies relied on simplified dependent measures that are arguably ambiguous and hard to interpret. We address the theoretical question of repair strategy by developing a new method that quantifies scanpath similarity. Our method reveals several distinct fixation strategies associated with reanalysis that went undetected in a previously published data set (Meseguer et al., 2002). One prevalent pattern suggests re-parsing of the sentence, a strategy that has been discussed in the literature (Frazier & Rayner, 1982); however, readers differed tremendously in how they orchestrated the various fixation strategies. Our results suggest that the human parsing system non-deterministically adopts different strategies when confronted with the disambiguating material in garden-path sentences. KW - Reading KW - Syntactic reanalysis KW - Eye movements KW - Parsing KW - Individual differences KW - Scanpaths Y1 - 2011 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2011.02.004 SN - 0749-596X VL - 65 IS - 2 SP - 109 EP - 127 PB - Elsevier CY - San Diego ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sperlich, Anja A1 - Schad, Daniel A1 - Laubrock, Jochen T1 - When preview information starts to matter BT - Development of the perceptual span in German beginning readers JF - Journal of cognitive psychology N2 - How is reading development reflected in eye-movement measures? How does the perceptual span change during the initial years of reading instruction? Does parafoveal processing require competence in basic word-decoding processes? We report data from the first cross-sectional measurement of the perceptual span of German beginning readers (n = 139), collected in the context of the large longitudinal PIER (Potsdamer Intrapersonale Entwicklungsrisiken/Potsdam study of intra-personal developmental risk factors) study of intrapersonal developmental risk factors. Using the moving-window paradigm, eye movements of three groups of students (Grades 1-3) were measured with gaze-contingent presentation of a variable amount of text around fixation. Reading rate increased from Grades 1-3, with smaller increases for higher grades. Perceptual-span results showed the expected main effects of grade and window size: fixation durations and refixation probability decreased with grade and window size, whereas reading rate and saccade length increased. Critically, for reading rate, first-fixation duration, saccade length and refixation probability, there were significant interactions of grade and window size that were mainly based on the contrast between Grades 3 and 2 rather than Grades 2 and 1. Taken together, development of the perceptual span only really takes off between Grades 2 and 3, suggesting that efficient parafoveal processing presupposes that basic processes of reading have been mastered. KW - Eye movements KW - German KW - Moving window KW - Perceptual span KW - Reading development Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2014.993990 SN - 2044-5911 SN - 2044-592X VL - 27 IS - 5 SP - 511 EP - 530 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schad, Daniel A1 - Risse, Sarah A1 - Slattery, Timothy A1 - Rayner, Keith T1 - Word frequency in fast priming: Evidence for immediate cognitive control of eye movements during reading JF - Visual cognition N2 - Numerous studies have demonstrated effects of word frequency on eye movements during reading, but the precise timing of this influence has remained unclear. The fast priming paradigm was previously used to study influences of related versus unrelated primes on the target word. Here, we use this procedure to investigate whether the frequency of the prime word has a direct influence on eye movements during reading when the prime-target relation is not manipulated. We found that with average prime intervals of 32 ms readers made longer single fixation durations on the target word in the low than in the high frequency prime condition. Distributional analyses demonstrated that the effect of prime frequency on single fixation durations occurred very early, supporting theories of immediate cognitive control of eye movements. Finding prime frequency effects only 207 ms after visibility of the prime and for prime durations of 32 ms yields new time constraints for cognitive processes controlling eye movements during reading. Our variant of the fast priming paradigm provides a new approach to test early influences of word processing on eye movement control during reading. KW - Eye movements KW - Fast-priming KW - Distributional analyses KW - Reading KW - Word frequency Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.892041 SN - 1350-6285 SN - 1464-0716 VL - 22 IS - 3-4 SP - 390 EP - 414 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schad, Daniel A1 - Nuthmann, Antje A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Your mind wanders weakly, your mind wanders deeply - objective measures reveal mindless reading at different levels JF - Cognition : international journal of cognitive science N2 - When the mind wanders, attention turns away from the external environment and cognitive processing is decoupled from perceptual information. Mind wandering is usually treated as a dichotomy (dichotomy-hypothesis), and is often measured using self-reports. Here, we propose the levels of inattention hypothesis, which postulates attentional decoupling to graded degrees at different hierarchical levels of cognitive processing. To measure graded levels of attentional decoupling during reading we introduce the sustained attention to stimulus task (SAST), which is based on psychophysics of error detection. Under experimental conditions likely to induce mind wandering, we found that subjects were less likely to notice errors that required high-level processing for their detection as opposed to errors that only required low-level processing. Eye tracking revealed that before errors were overlooked influences of high- and low-level linguistic variables on eye fixations were reduced in a graded fashion, indicating episodes of mindless reading at weak and deep levels. Individual fixation durations predicted overlooking of lexical errors 5 s before they occurred. Our findings support the levels of inattention hypothesis and suggest that different levels of mindless reading can be measured behaviorally in the SAST. Using eye tracking to detect mind wandering online represents a promising approach for the development of new techniques to study mind wandering and to ameliorate its negative consequences. KW - Mind wandering KW - Reading KW - Eye movements KW - Signal detection theory KW - Levels of processing KW - Sustained attention Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.004 SN - 0010-0277 VL - 125 IS - 2 SP - 179 EP - 194 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam ER -