TY - JOUR A1 - Meixner, Johannes M. A1 - Nixon, Jessie S. A1 - Laubrock, Jochen T1 - The perceptual span is dynamically adjusted in response to foveal load by beginning readers JF - Journal of experimental psychology : general N2 - The perceptual span describes the size of the visual field from which information is obtained during a fixation in reading. Its size depends on characteristics of writing system and reader, but-according to the foveal load hypothesis-it is also adjusted dynamically as a function of lexical processing difficulty. Using the moving window paradigm to manipulate the amount of preview, here we directly test whether the perceptual span shrinks as foveal word difficulty increases. We computed the momentary size of the span from word-based eye-movement measures as a function of foveal word frequency, allowing us to separately describe the perceptual span for information affecting spatial saccade targeting and temporal saccade execution. First fixation duration and gaze duration on the upcoming (parafoveal) word N + 1 were significantly shorter when the current (foveal) word N was more frequent. We show that the word frequency effect is modulated by window size. Fixation durations on word N + 1 decreased with high-frequency words N, but only for large windows, that is, when sufficient parafoveal preview was available. This provides strong support for the foveal load hypothesis. To investigate the development of the foveal load effect, we analyzed data from three waves of a longitudinal study on the perceptual span with German children in Grades 1 to 6. Perceptual span adjustment emerged early in development at around second grade and remained stable in later grades. We conclude that the local modulation of the perceptual span indicates a general cognitive process, perhaps an attentional gradient with rapid readjustment. KW - eye movements KW - attention KW - perceptual span KW - foveal load KW - reading KW - development Y1 - 2022 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001140 SN - 0096-3445 SN - 1939-2222 VL - 151 IS - 6 SP - 1219 EP - 1232 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Adam, Maurits A1 - Elsner, Birgit T1 - The impact of salient action effects on 6-, 7-, and 11-month-olds’ goal-predictive gaze shifts for a human grasping action JF - PLOS ONE N2 - When infants observe a human grasping action, experience-based accounts predict that all infants familiar with grasping actions should be able to predict the goal regardless of additional agency cues such as an action effect. Cue-based accounts, however, suggest that infants use agency cues to identify and predict action goals when the action or the agent is not familiar. From these accounts, we hypothesized that younger infants would need additional agency cues such as a salient action effect to predict the goal of a human grasping action, whereas older infants should be able to predict the goal regardless of agency cues. In three experiments, we presented 6-, 7-, and 11-month-olds with videos of a manual grasping action presented either with or without an additional salient action effect (Exp. 1 and 2), or we presented 7-month-olds with videos of a mechanical claw performing a grasping action presented with a salient action effect (Exp. 3). The 6-month-olds showed tracking gaze behavior, and the 11-month-olds showed predictive gaze behavior, regardless of the action effect. However, the 7-month-olds showed predictive gaze behavior in the action-effect condition, but tracking gaze behavior in the no-action-effect condition and in the action-effect condition with a mechanical claw. The results therefore support the idea that salient action effects are especially important for infants' goal predictions from 7 months on, and that this facilitating influence of action effects is selective for the observation of human hands. KW - attention KW - eye movements KW - infants perception KW - mechanisms KW - origins Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240165 SN - 1932-6203 VL - 15 IS - 10 PB - Public Library of Science CY - San Fransisco ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Laubrock, Jochen A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - The eye-voice span during reading aloud JF - Frontiers in psychology N2 - Although eye movements during reading are modulated by cognitive processing demands, they also reflect visual sampling of the input, and possibly preparation of output for speech or the inner voice. By simultaneously recording eye movements and the voice during reading aloud, we obtained an output measure that constrains the length of time spent on cognitive processing. Here we investigate the dynamics of the eye-voice span (EVS), the distance between eye and voice. We show that the EVS is regulated immediately during fixation of a word by either increasing fixation duration or programming a regressive eye movement against the reading direction. EVS size at the beginning of a fixation was positively correlated with the likelihood of regressions and refixations. Regression probability was further increased if the EVS was still large at the end of a fixation: if adjustment of fixation duration did not sufficiently reduce the EVS during a fixation, then a regression rather than a refixation followed with high probability. We further show that the EVS can help understand cognitive influences on fixation duration during reading: in mixed model analyses, the EVS was a stronger predictor of fixation durations than either word frequency or word length. The EVS modulated the influence of several other predictors on single fixation durations (SFDs). For example, word-N frequency effects were larger with a large EVS, especially when word N-1 frequency was low. Finally, a comparison of SFDs during oral and silent reading showed that reading is governed by similar principles in both reading modes, although EVS maintenance and articulatory processing also cause some differences. In summary, the EVS is regulated by adjusting fixation duration and/or by programming a regressive eye movement when the EVS gets too large. Overall, the EVS appears to be directly related to updating of the working memory buffer during reading. KW - reading KW - eye movements KW - eye-voice span KW - synchronization KW - working memory updating KW - psychologinguistics Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01437 SN - 1664-1078 VL - 6 PB - Frontiers Research Foundation CY - Lausanne ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Laubrock, Jochen A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - The eye-voice span during reading aloud JF - Frontiers in psychology N2 - Although eye movements during reading are modulated by cognitive processing demands, they also reflect visual sampling of the input, and possibly preparation of output for speech or the inner voice. By simultaneously recording eye movements and the voice during reading aloud, we obtained an output measure that constrains the length of time spent on cognitive processing. Here we investigate the dynamics of the eye-voice span (EVS), the distance between eye and voice. We show that the EVS is regulated immediately during fixation of a word by either increasing fixation duration or programming a regressive eye movement against the reading direction. EVS size at the beginning of a fixation was positively correlated with the likelihood of regressions and refixations. Regression probability was further increased if the EVS was still large at the end of a fixation: if adjustment of fixation duration did not sufficiently reduce the EVS during a fixation, then a regression rather than a refixation followed with high probability. We further show that the EVS can help understand cognitive influences on fixation duration during reading: in mixed model analyses, the EVS was a stronger predictor of fixation durations than either word frequency or word length. The EVS modulated the influence of several other predictors on single fixation durations (SFDs). For example, word-N frequency effects were larger with a large EVS, especially when word N-1 frequency was low. Finally, a comparison of SFDs during oral and silent reading showed that reading is governed by similar principles in both reading modes, although EVS maintenance and articulatory processing also cause some differences. In summary, the EVS is regulated by adjusting fixation duration and/or by programming a regressive eye movement when the EVS gets too large. Overall, the EVS appears to be directly related to updating of the working memory buffer during reading. KW - reading KW - eye movements KW - eye-voice span KW - synchronization KW - working memory updating KW - psychologinguistics Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01432 SN - 1664-1078 VL - 6 IS - 1432 PB - Frontiers Research Foundation CY - Lausanne ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Barthelme, Simon A1 - Wichmann, Felix A. T1 - Spatial statistics and attentional dynamics in scene viewing JF - Journal of vision N2 - In humans and in foveated animals visual acuity is highly concentrated at the center of gaze, so that choosing where to look next is an important example of online, rapid decision-making. Computational neuroscientists have developed biologically-inspired models of visual attention, termed saliency maps, which successfully predict where people fixate on average. Using point process theory for spatial statistics, we show that scanpaths contain, however, important statistical structure, such as spatial clustering on top of distributions of gaze positions. Here, we develop a dynamical model of saccadic selection that accurately predicts the distribution of gaze positions as well as spatial clustering along individual scanpaths. Our model relies on activation dynamics via spatially-limited (foveated) access to saliency information, and, second, a leaky memory process controlling the re-inspection of target regions. This theoretical framework models a form of context-dependent decision-making, linking neural dynamics of attention to behavioral gaze data. KW - scene perception KW - eye movements KW - attention KW - saccades KW - modeling KW - spatial statistics Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1167/15.1.14 SN - 1534-7362 VL - 15 IS - 1 PB - Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology CY - Rockville ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hartmann, Matthias A1 - Mast, Fred W. A1 - Fischer, Martin H. T1 - Spatial biases during mental arithmetic: evidence from eye movements on a blank screen JF - Frontiers in psychology N2 - While the influence of spatial-numerical associations in number categorization tasks has been well established, their role in mental arithmetic is less clear. It has been hypothesized that mental addition leads to rightward and upward shifts of spatial attention (along the "mental number line"), whereas subtraction leads to leftward and downward shifts. We addressed this hypothesis by analyzing spontaneous eye movements during mental arithmetic. Participants solved verbally presented arithmetic problems (e.g., 2 + 7, 8-3) aloud while looking at a blank screen. We found that eye movements reflected spatial biases in the ongoing mental operation: Gaze position shifted more upward when participants solved addition compared to subtraction problems, and the horizontal gaze position was partly determined by the magnitude of the operands. Interestingly, the difference between addition and subtraction trials was driven by the operator (plus vs. minus) but was not influenced by the computational process. Thus, our results do not support the idea of a mental movement toward the solution during arithmetic but indicate a semantic association between operation and space. KW - mental arithmetic KW - eye movements KW - mental number line KW - operational momentum KW - embodied cognition KW - grounded cognition Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00012 SN - 1664-1078 VL - 6 PB - Frontiers Research Foundation CY - Lausanne ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hohenstein, Sven A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Semantic preview benefit during reading JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition N2 - Word features in parafoveal vision influence eye movements during reading. The question of whether readers extract semantic information from parafoveal words was studied in 3 experiments by using a gaze-contingent display change technique. Subjects read German sentences containing 1 of several preview words that were replaced by a target word during the saccade to the preview (boundary paradigm). In the 1st experiment the preview word was semantically related or unrelated to the target. Fixation durations on the target were shorter for semantically related than unrelated previews, consistent with a semantic preview benefit. In the 2nd experiment, half the sentences were presented following the rules of German spelling (i.e., previews and targets were printed with an initial capital letter), and the other half were presented completely in lowercase. A semantic preview benefit was obtained under both conditions. In the 3rd experiment, we introduced 2 further preview conditions, an identical word and a pronounceable nonword, while also manipulating the text contrast. Whereas the contrast had negligible effects, fixation durations on the target were reliably different for all 4 types of preview. Semantic preview benefits were greater for pretarget fixations closer to the boundary (large preview space) and, although not as consistently, for long pretarget fixation durations (long preview time). The results constrain theoretical proposals about eye movement control in reading. KW - eye movements KW - reading KW - semantic preview benefit KW - parafoveal processing KW - display change awareness Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033670 SN - 0278-7393 SN - 1939-1285 VL - 40 IS - 1 SP - 166 EP - 190 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Luo, Yingyi A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - Zhou, Xiaolin T1 - Prosodic boundaries delay the processing of upcoming lexical information during silent sentence reading JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition N2 - Prosodic boundaries can be used to guide syntactic parsing in both spoken and written sentence comprehension, but it is unknown whether the processing of prosodic boundaries affects the processing of upcoming lexical information. In 3 eye-tracking experiments, participants read silently sentences that allow for 2 possible syntactic interpretations when there is no comma or other cue specifying which interpretation should be taken. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants heard a low-pass filtered auditory version of the sentence, which provided a prosodic boundary cue prior to each sentence. In Experiment 1, we found that the boundary cue helped syntactic disambiguation after the cue and led to longer fixation durations on regions right before the cue than on identical regions without prosodic boundary information. In Experiments 2 and 3, we used a gaze-contingent display-change paradigm to manipulate the parafoveal visibility of the first constituent character of the target word after the disambiguating position. Results of Experiment 2 showed that previewing the first character significantly reduced the reading time of the target word, but this preview benefit was greatly reduced when the prosodic boundary cue was introduced at this position. In Experiment 3, instead of the acoustic cues, a visually presented comma was inserted at the disambiguating position in each sentence. Results showed that the comma effect on lexical processing was essentially the same as the effect of prosodic boundary cue. These findings demonstrate that processing a prosodic boundary could impair the processing of parafoveal information during sentence reading. KW - prosodic boundary KW - sentence reading KW - eye movements KW - parafoveal processing KW - wrap-up process Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029182 SN - 0278-7393 SN - 1939-1285 VL - 39 IS - 3 SP - 915 EP - 930 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Yan, Ming A1 - Zhou, Wei A1 - Shu, Hua A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Perceptual span depends on font size during the reading of chinese sentences JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition N2 - The present study explored the perceptual span (i.e., the physical extent of an area from which useful visual information is extracted during a single fixation) during the reading of Chinese sentences in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, we tested whether the rightward span can go beyond 3 characters when visually similar masks were used. Results showed that Chinese readers needed at least 4 characters to the right of fixation to maintain a normal reading behavior when visually similar masks were used and when characters were displayed in small fonts, indicating that the span is dynamically influenced by masking materials. In Experiments 2 and 3, we asked whether the perceptual span varies as a function of font size in spaced (German) and unspaced (Chinese) scripts. Results clearly suggest perceptual span depends on font size in Chinese, but we failed to find such evidence for German. We propose that the perceptual span in Chinese is flexible; it is strongly constrained by its language-specific properties such as high information density and lack of word spacing. Implications for saccade-target selection during the reading of Chinese sentences are discussed. KW - eye movements KW - parafoveal processing KW - perceptual span KW - Chinese reading Y1 - 2015 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038097 SN - 0278-7393 SN - 1939-1285 VL - 41 IS - 1 SP - 209 EP - 219 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Werner, Karsten A1 - Raab, Markus A1 - Fischer, Martin H. T1 - Moving arms BT - the effects of sensorimotor information on the problem-solving process JF - Thinking & Reasoning N2 - Embodied cognition postulates a bi-directional link between the human body and its cognitive functions. Whether this holds for higher cognitive functions such as problem solving is unknown. We predicted that arm movement manipulations performed by the participants could affect the problem-solving solutions. We tested this prediction in quantitative reasoning tasks that allowed two solutions to each problem (addition or subtraction). In two studies with healthy adults (N=53 and N=50), we found an effect of problem-congruent movements on problem solutions. Consistent with embodied cognition, sensorimotor information gained via right or left arm movements affects the solution in different types of problem-solving tasks. KW - Embodied cognition KW - eye movements KW - problem solving Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2018.1494630 SN - 1354-6783 SN - 1464-0708 VL - 25 IS - 2 SP - 171 EP - 191 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Barthelme, Simon A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Wichmann, Felix A. T1 - Modeling fixation locations using spatial point processes JF - Journal of vision N2 - Whenever eye movements are measured, a central part of the analysis has to do with where subjects fixate and why they fixated where they fixated. To a first approximation, a set of fixations can be viewed as a set of points in space; this implies that fixations are spatial data and that the analysis of fixation locations can be beneficially thought of as a spatial statistics problem. We argue that thinking of fixation locations as arising from point processes is a very fruitful framework for eye-movement data, helping turn qualitative questions into quantitative ones. We provide a tutorial introduction to some of the main ideas of the field of spatial statistics, focusing especially on spatial Poisson processes. We show how point processes help relate image properties to fixation locations. In particular we show how point processes naturally express the idea that image features' predictability for fixations may vary from one image to another. We review other methods of analysis used in the literature, show how they relate to point process theory, and argue that thinking in terms of point processes substantially extends the range of analyses that can be performed and clarify their interpretation. KW - eye movements KW - fixation locations KW - saliency KW - modeling KW - point process KW - spatial statistics Y1 - 2013 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1167/13.12.1 SN - 1534-7362 VL - 13 IS - 12 PB - Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology CY - Rockville ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schütt, Heiko Herbert A1 - Rothkegel, Lars Oliver Martin A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Reich, Sebastian A1 - Wichmann, Felix A. A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Likelihood-based parameter estimation and comparison of dynamical cognitive models JF - Psychological Review N2 - Dynamical models of cognition play an increasingly important role in driving theoretical and experimental research in psychology. Therefore, parameter estimation, model analysis and comparison of dynamical models are of essential importance. In this article, we propose a maximum likelihood approach for model analysis in a fully dynamical framework that includes time-ordered experimental data. Our methods can be applied to dynamical models for the prediction of discrete behavior (e.g., movement onsets); in particular, we use a dynamical model of saccade generation in scene viewing as a case study for our approach. For this model, the likelihood function can be computed directly by numerical simulation, which enables more efficient parameter estimation including Bayesian inference to obtain reliable estimates and corresponding credible intervals. Using hierarchical models inference is even possible for individual observers. Furthermore, our likelihood approach can be used to compare different models. In our example, the dynamical framework is shown to outperform nondynamical statistical models. Additionally, the likelihood based evaluation differentiates model variants, which produced indistinguishable predictions on hitherto used statistics. Our results indicate that the likelihood approach is a promising framework for dynamical cognitive models. KW - likelihood KW - model fitting KW - dynamical model KW - eye movements KW - model comparison Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000068 SN - 0033-295X SN - 1939-1471 VL - 124 IS - 4 SP - 505 EP - 524 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - THES A1 - Rettig, Anja T1 - Learning to read in German BT - eye movements and the perceptual span of German beginning readers and their relation to reading motivation BT - Blickbewegungen und die perzentuelle Lesespanne von deutschsprachigen Leseanfängern und der Zusammenhang zur Lesemotivation N2 - In the present dissertation, the development of eye movement behavior and the perceptual span of German beginning readers was investigated in Grades 1 to 3 (Study 1) and longitudinally within a one-year time interval (Study 2), as well as in relation to intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation (Study 3). The presented results are intended to fill the gap of only sparse information on young readers’ eye movements and completely missing information on German young readers’ perceptual span and its development. On the other hand, reading motivation data have been scrutinized with respect to reciprocal effects on reading comprehension but not with respect to more immediate, basic cognitive processing (e.g., word decoding) that is indicated by different eye movement measures. Based on a longitudinal study design, children in Grades 1–3 participated in a moving window reading experiment with eye movement recordings in two successive years. All children were participants of a larger longitudinal study on intrapersonal developmental risk factors in childhood and adolescence (PIER study). Motivation data and other psychometric reading data were collected during individual inquiries and tests at school. Data analyses were realized in three separate studies that focused on different but related aspects of reading and perceptual span development. Study 1 presents the first cross-sectional report on the perceptual span of beginning German readers. The focus was on reading rate changes in Grades 1 to 3 and on the issue of the onset of the perceptual span development and its dependence on basic foveal reading processes. Study 2 presents a successor of Study 1 providing first longitudinal data of the perceptual span in elementary school children. It also includes information on the stability of observed and predicted reading rates and perceptual span sizes and introduces a new measure of the perceptual span based on nonlinear mixed-effects models. Another issue addressed in this study is the longitudinal between-group comparison of slower and faster readers which refers to the detection of developmental patterns. Study 3 includes longitudinal reading motivation data and investigates the relation between different eye movement measures including perceptual span and intrinsic as well as extrinsic reading motivation. In Study 1, a decelerated increase in reading rate was observed between Grades 1 to 3. Grade effects were also reported for saccade length, refixation probability, and different fixation duration measures. With higher grade, mean saccade length increased, whereas refixation probability, first-fixation duration, gaze duration, and total reading time decreased. Perceptual span development was indicated by an increase in window size effects with grade level. Grade level differences with respect to window size effects were stronger between Grades 2 and 3 than between Grades 1 and 2. These results were replicated longitudinally in Study 2. Again, perceptual span size significantly changed between Grades 2 and 3, but not between Grades 1 and 2 or Grades 3 and 4. Observed and predicted reading rates were found to be highly stable after first grade, whereas stability of perceptual span was only moderate for all grade levels. Group differences between slower and faster readers in Year 1 remained observable in Year 2 showing a pattern of stable achievement differences rather than a compensatory pattern. Between Grades 2 and 3, between-group differences in reading rate even increased resulting in a Matthew effect. A similar effect was observed for perceptual span development between Grades 3 and 4. Finally, in Study 3, significant relations between beginning readers’ eye movements and their reading motivation were observed. In both years of measurement, higher intrinsic reading motivation was related to more skilled eye movement patterns as indicated by short fixations, longer saccades, and higher reading rates. In Year 2, intrinsic reading motivation was also significantly and negatively correlated with refixation probability. These correlational patterns were confirmed in cross-sectional linear models controlling for grade level and reading amount and including both reading motivation measures, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. While there were significant positive relations between intrinsic reading motivation and word decoding as indicated by the above stated eye movement measures, extrinsic reading motivation only predicted variance in eye movements in Year 2 (significant for fixation durations and reading rate), with a consistently opposite pattern of effects as compared to intrinsic reading motivation. Finally, longitudinal effects of Year 1 intrinsic reading motivation on Year 2 word decoding were observed for gaze duration, total reading time, refixation probability, and perceptual span within cross-lagged panel models. These effects were reciprocal because all eye movement measures significantly predicted variance in intrinsic reading motivation. Extrinsic reading motivation in Year 1 did not affect any eye movement measure in Year 2, and vice versa, except for a significant, negative relation with perceptual span. Concluding, the present dissertation demonstrates that largest gains in reading development in terms of eye movement changes are observable between Grades 1 and 2. Together with the observed pattern of stable differences between slower and faster readers and a widening achievement gap between Grades 2 and 3 for reading rate, these results underline the importance of the first year(s) of formal reading instruction. The development of the perceptual span lags behind as it is most apparent between Grades 2 and 3. This suggests that efficient parafoveal processing presupposes a certain degree of foveal reading proficiency (e.g., word decoding). Finally, this dissertation demonstrates that intrinsic reading motivation—but not extrinsic motivation—effectively supports the development of skilled reading. N2 - In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde die Entwicklung der Blickbewegungen und der perzeptuellen Lesespanne von deutschsprachigen Leseanfängern in den Klassenstufen 1–3 im Querschnitt (Studie 1) als auch im Längsschnitt innerhalb eines Jahres (Studie 2) sowie hinsichtlich des Zusammenhangs mit der intrinsischen und der extrinsischen Lesemotivation (Studie 3) untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit stellen einen bedeutsamen empirischen Beitrag zur ansonsten verhältnismäßig eher spärlichen empirisch-experimentellen Forschung zur frühen Leseentwicklung dar und liefern erste Erkenntnisse über die perzeptuelle Spanne von jungen deutschsprachigen Lesern. Des Weiteren wurde Neuland betreten, indem Blickdaten im Zusammenhang mit Lesemotivationsdaten ausgewertet wurden. Während es umfangreiche Forschungsarbeiten zum reziproken Zusammenhang zwischen Lesemotivation und dem Leserverstehen gibt, ist kaum etwas zu wechselseitigen Lesemotivationseffekten in Bezug auf basale kognitive Prozesse (z.B. die Wort-Dekodierung), wie sie durch verschiedene Blickbewegungsmaße indiziert werden, bekannt. Auf Grundlage eines längsschnittlichen Untersuchungsdesigns nahmen Kinder der Klassenstufen 1–3 in zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Jahren an einem Moving-Window-Leseexperiment mit manipuliertem Text teil. Alle Kinder waren Teilnehmer einer größeren Längsschnittstudie zur Untersuchung von intrapersonellen Risikofaktoren im Kindes- und Jugendalter (PIER-Studie). In individuellen Befragungen und Testungen in den Schulen wurden u.a. auch Lesemotivations- und andere psychometrische Lesedaten erhoben. Die im Labor erfassten Blickdaten wurden zusammen mit diesen psychometrischen Daten im Rahmen von drei separaten Studien ausgewertet, die jeweils verschiedene, jedoch miteinander in Bezug stehende Aspekte der Lese- und Lesespannen-Entwicklung untersuchen. Studie 1 präsentiert einen ersten querschnittlichen Bericht zur perzeptuellen Lesespanne von deutschsprachigen Leseanfängern. Hierbei lag der Fokus auf Veränderungen der Leserate in den Klassenstufen 1–3 und auf der Frage, wann die Entwicklung der perzeptuellen Spanne beginnt und inwiefern diese Entwicklung von basalen fovealen Leseprozessen abhängig ist. Studie 2 stellt eine Folgeuntersuchung dar, die erste Längsschnittdaten zur Entwicklung der perzeptuellen Lesespanne bei Grundschulkindern liefert. Untersucht wurden desweiteren die Stabilität der beobachteten und vorhergesagten Leserate als auch der perzeptuellen Lesespanne. In diesem Zusammenhang wird ein neues Spannenmaß vorgestellt, welches auf nicht-linearen gemischten Modellen basiert. Eine weitere Fragestellung der Studie ist der längsschnittliche Gruppenvergleich von langsameren und schnelleren Lesern, welcher auf die Entdeckung von Entwicklungsmustern abzielt. Studie 3 inkludiert längsschnittliche Lesemotivatonsdaten und untersucht die Beziehung zwischen verschiedenen Blickbewegungsmaßen einschließlich der perzeptuellen Lesespanne und der intrinsischen als auch extrinsischen Lesemotivation unter Berücksichtigung der Lesehäufigkeit. In Hinblick auf die Leseentwicklung in Klassenstufe 1–3 wurde ein zwischen den Klassenstufen abnehmender sukzessiver Anstieg in der Leserate beobachtet. Klassenstufeneffekte wurden außerdem berichtet für die Sakkadenlänge, die Refixationswahrscheinlichkeit und für verschiedene Fixationsdauermaße. Mit höherer Klassenstufe stieg die mittlere Sakkadenlänge, wohingegen die Refixationswahrscheinlichkeit, die Dauer der ersten Fixation auf einem Wort, die Blickdauer im sogenannten First-Pass und die Gesamtlesedauer von Worten abnahmen. Die Entwicklung der perzeptuellen Lesespanne wurde ersichtlich durch einen Anstieg von Fenstergrößen-Effekten mit steigender Klassenstufe. Der Unterschied zwischen den Klassenstufen im Hinblick auf Fenstergrößen-Effekte war größer zwischen Klasse 2 und 3 als zwischen den Klassen 1 und 2. Diese Ergebnisse wurden längsschnittlich repliziert in Studie 2. Wieder zeigte sich ein signifikanter Unterschied in der perzeptuellen Lesespanne zwischen Klassenstufe 2 und 3, jedoch nicht zwischen Klassenstufe 1 und 2 oder Klassenstufe 3 und 4. Die beobachtete und die vorhergesagte Leserate waren hoch stabil jenseits der ersten Klasse, wohingegen für die perzeptuelle Lesespanne für alle Klassenstufen nur eine moderate Stabilität gefunden wurde. Gruppenunterschiede zwischen langsameren und schnelleren Lesern im ersten Untersuchungsjahr wurden auch im zweiten Untersuchungsjahr beobachtet. Dabei zeichnete sich ein Muster eher stabiler anstatt kompensatorischer Leistungsunterschiede ab. Zwischen Klassenstufe 2 und 3 gab es sogar einen Anstieg der Disparität zwischen den Gruppen für die Leserate. Es zeichnete sich also ein sogenannter Matthäus-Effekt ab. Ein ähnlicher Effekt wurde für die perzeptuelle Lesespanne zwischen Klassenstufe 3 und 4 beobachtet. Abschließend wurde in Studie 3 ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen den Blickbewegungen von Leseanfängern und ihrer Lesemotivation gefunden. In beiden Erhebungsjahren, korrelierte eine höhere intrinsische Lesemotivation mit geübteren Blickbewegungsmustern, was sich in kürzeren Fixationen, längeren Sakkaden und höheren Leseraten zeigte sowie im zweiten Erhebungsjahr auch in kleineren Refixationswahrscheinlichkeiten. In querschnittlichen linearen Modellen erwies sich die intrinsiche Lesemotivation als signifikanter Prädiktor für die oben genannten Blickmaße, selbst wenn für Klassenstufe und Lesehäufigkeit kontrolliert wurde und beide Motivationsmaße, die intrinische und die extrinsische Motivation, gleichzeitig ins Modell aufgenommen wurden. Die extrinsische Lesemotivation erwies sich hingegen nur im zweiten Erhebungsjahr als signifikanter Prädiktor der verschiedenen Fixationsdauern und der Leserate, wobei das Effektmuster durchweg entgegengesetzt zu dem für die intrinsische Lesemotivation beobachteten war. Schließlich wurden in kreuzverzögerten Autoregressionsmodellen längsschnittliche Effekte der intrinisichen Lesemotivation auf verschiedene Blickbewegungsmaße (Blickdauer im First-Pass, Gesamtlesezeit, Refixationswahrscheinlichkeit und perzeptuelle Lesespanne) beobachet. Diese Effekte waren reziprok, da alle Blickbewegungsmaße auch signifikant Varianz in der intrinsischen Lesemotivation vorhergesagt haben. Im Gegensatz dazu gab es weder signifikante längsschnittliche Effekte der extrinsichen Lesemotivation auf das Blickverhalten noch in die Gegenrichtung signifikante Effekte von Blickbewegungsmaßen auf die extrinsische Lesemotivation, mit Ausnahme einer signifikanten negativen Beziehung zwischen der extrinsischen Lesemotivation und der Lesespanne. Zusammenfassend lassen sich folgende Erkenntnisse festhalten: Die aktuelle Dissertation zeigt auf, dass der größte Zuwachs bei der Leseentwicklung im Sinne von Blickbewegungsänderungen zwischen den Klassenstufen 1 und 2 zu beobachten ist. Zusammen mit dem beobachteten Muster zeitlich stabiler Gruppenunterschiede zwischen langsameren und schnelleren Lesern und dem größer werdenden Leistungsabstand zwischen Klassenstufe 2 und 3 für das Maß der Leserate unterstreichen die Ergebnisse die Bedeutsamkeit des (der) ersten Jahre(s) formaler Leseinstruktion. Die Entwicklung der perzeptuellen Lesespanne ist verzögert, da sie am deutlichsten zwischen den Klassenstufen 2 und 3 sichtbar wird. Dies legt die Schlussfolgerung nah, dass effiziente parafoveale Verarbeitung einen gewissen Grad an fovealer Lesefertigkeit (d.h. basale Wortdekodierfähigkeiten) erfordert. Schließlich liefert die aktuelle Dissertation auch empirische Belege dafür, dass die intrinsische—aber nicht die extrinsische—Lesemotivation effektiv die Leseentwicklung unterstützt. T2 - Lesen Lernen im Deutschen KW - eye movements KW - perceptual span KW - reading development KW - beginning readers KW - German KW - moving window KW - longitudinal study KW - reading motivation KW - Blickbewegungen KW - perzentuelle Lesespanne KW - Leseentwicklung KW - Leseanfänger KW - Deutsch KW - Moving Window KW - Längsschnittstudie KW - Lesemotivation Y1 - 2021 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Cajar, Anke A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Laubrock, Jochen T1 - How spatial frequencies and color drive object search in real-world scenes BT - a new eye-movement corpus JF - Journal of vision N2 - When studying how people search for objects in scenes, the inhomogeneity of the visual field is often ignored. Due to physiological limitations, peripheral vision is blurred and mainly uses coarse-grained information (i.e., low spatial frequencies) for selecting saccade targets, whereas high-acuity central vision uses fine-grained information (i.e., high spatial frequencies) for analysis of details. Here we investigated how spatial frequencies and color affect object search in real-world scenes. Using gaze-contingent filters, we attenuated high or low frequencies in central or peripheral vision while viewers searched color or grayscale scenes. Results showed that peripheral filters and central high-pass filters hardly affected search accuracy, whereas accuracy dropped drastically with central low-pass filters. Peripheral filtering increased the time to localize the target by decreasing saccade amplitudes and increasing number and duration of fixations. The use of coarse-grained information in the periphery was limited to color scenes. Central filtering increased the time to verify target identity instead, especially with low-pass filters. We conclude that peripheral vision is critical for object localization and central vision is critical for object identification. Visual guidance during peripheral object localization is dominated by low-frequency color information, whereas high-frequency information, relatively independent of color, is most important for object identification in central vision. KW - scene viewing KW - eye movements KW - object search KW - central and peripheral KW - vision KW - spatial frequencies KW - color KW - gaze-contingent displays Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1167/jov.20.7.8 SN - 1534-7362 VL - 20 IS - 7 PB - Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology CY - Rockville ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schotter, Elizabeth Roye A1 - von der Malsburg, Titus Raban A1 - Leinenger, Mallorie T1 - Forced Fixations, Trans-Saccadic Integration, and Word Recognition BT - Evidence for a Hybrid Mechanism of Saccade Triggering in Reading JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition N2 - Recent studies using the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm reported a reversed preview benefit- shorter fixations on a target word when an unrelated preview was easier to process than the fixated target (Schotter & Leinenger, 2016). This is explained viaforeedfixatiotzs-short fixations on words that would ideally be skipped (because lexical processing has progressed enough) but could not be because saccade planning reached a point of no return. This contrasts with accounts of preview effects via trans-saccadic integration-shorter fixations on a target word when the preview is more similar to it (see Cutter. Drieghe, & Liversedge, 2015). In addition, if the previewed word-not the fixated target-determines subsequent eye movements, is it also this word that enters the linguistic processing stream? We tested these accounts by having 24 subjects read 150 sentences in the boundary paradigm in which both the preview and target were initially plausible but later one, both, or neither became implausible, providing an opportunity to probe which one was linguistically encoded. In an intervening buffer region, both words were plausible, providing an opportunity to investigate trans-saccadic integration. The frequency of the previewed word affected progressive saccades (i.e.. forced fixations) as well as when transsaccadic integration failure increased regressions, but, only the implausibility of the target word affected semantic encoding. These data support a hybrid account of saccadic control (Reingold, Reichle. Glaholt, & Sheridan, 2012) driven by incomplete (often parafoveal) word recognition, which occurs prior to complete (often foveal) word recognition. KW - parafoveal processing KW - word recognition KW - regressive saccades KW - eye movements KW - reading Y1 - 2019 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000617 SN - 0278-7393 SN - 1939-1285 VL - 45 IS - 4 SP - 677 EP - 688 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Fernandez, Gerardo A1 - Shalom, Diego E. A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold A1 - Sigman, Mariano T1 - Eye movements during reading proverbs and regular sentences: the incoming word predictability effect JF - Language, cognition and neuroscience KW - eye movements KW - reading KW - proverbs KW - incoming word predictability effect Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2012.760745 SN - 2327-3798 SN - 2327-3801 VL - 29 IS - 3 SP - 260 EP - 273 PB - Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group CY - Abingdon ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Risse, Sarah A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Evidence for delayed Parafoveal-on-Foveal effects from word n+2 in reading JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Human perception and performance N2 - During reading information is acquired from word(s) beyond the word that is currently looked at. It is still an open question whether such parafoveal information can influence the current viewing of a word, and if so, whether such parafoveal-on-foveal effects are attributable to distributed processing or to mislocated fixations which occur when the eyes are directed at a parafoveal word but land on another word instead. In two display-change experiments, we orthogonally manipulated the preview and target difficulty of word n+2 to investigate the role of mislocated fixations on the previous word n+1. When the eyes left word n, an easy or difficult word n+2 preview was replaced by an easy or difficult n+2 target word. In Experiment 1, n+2 processing difficulty was manipulated by means of word frequency (i.e., easy high-frequency vs. difficult low-frequency word n+2). In Experiment 2, we varied the visual familiarity of word n+2 (i.e., easy lower-case vs. difficult alternating-case writing). Fixations on the short word n+1, which were likely to be mislocated, were nevertheless not influenced by the difficulty of the adjacent word n+2, the hypothesized target of the mislocated fixation. Instead word n+1 was influenced by the preview difficulty of word n+2, representing a delayed parafoveal-on-foveal effect. The results challenge the mislocated-fixation hypothesis as an explanation of parafoveal-on-foveal effects and provide new insight into the complex spatial and temporal effect structure of processing inside the perceptual span during reading. KW - perceptual span KW - n+2-boundary paradigm KW - preview benefit KW - parafoveal-on-foveal effect KW - mislocated fixations KW - eye movements Y1 - 2012 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027735 SN - 0096-1523 VL - 38 IS - 4 SP - 1026 EP - 1042 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Risse, Sarah A1 - Kliegl, Reinhold T1 - Dissociating preview validity and preview difficulty in parafoveal processing of word n+1 during reading JF - Journal of experimental psychology : Human perception and performance N2 - Many studies have shown that previewing the next word n + 1 during reading leads to substantial processing benefit (e.g., shorter word viewing times) when this word is eventually fixated. However, evidence of such preprocessing in fixations on the preceding word n when in fact the information about the preview is acquired is far less consistent. A recent study suggested that such effects may be delayed into fixations on the next word n + 1 (Risse & Kliegl, 2012). To investigate the time course of parafoveal information-acquisition on the control of eye movements during reading, we conducted 2 gaze-contingent display-change experiments and orthogonally manipulated the processing difficulty (i.e., word frequency) of an n + 1 preview word and its validity relative to the target word. Preview difficulty did not affect fixation durations on the pretarget word n but on the target word n + 1. In fact, the delayed preview-difficulty effect was almost of the same size as the preview benefit associated with the n + 1 preview validity. Based on additional results from quantile-regression analyses on the time course of the 2 preview effects, we discuss consequences as to the integration of foveal and parafoveal information and potential implications for computational models of eye guidance in reading. KW - display-change awareness KW - eye movements KW - parafoveal-on-foveal effect KW - parafoveal preview benefit KW - perceptual span Y1 - 2014 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034997 SN - 0096-1523 SN - 1939-1277 VL - 40 IS - 2 SP - 653 EP - 668 PB - American Psychological Association CY - Washington ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schütt, Heiko Herbert A1 - Rothkegel, Lars Oliver Martin A1 - Trukenbrod, Hans Arne A1 - Engbert, Ralf A1 - Wichmann, Felix A. T1 - Disentangling bottom-up versus top-down and low-level versus high-level influences on eye movements over time JF - Journal of vision N2 - Bottom-up and top-down as well as low-level and high-level factors influence where we fixate when viewing natural scenes. However, the importance of each of these factors and how they interact remains a matter of debate. Here, we disentangle these factors by analyzing their influence over time. For this purpose, we develop a saliency model that is based on the internal representation of a recent early spatial vision model to measure the low-level, bottom-up factor. To measure the influence of high-level, bottom-up features, we use a recent deep neural network-based saliency model. To account for top-down influences, we evaluate the models on two large data sets with different tasks: first, a memorization task and, second, a search task. Our results lend support to a separation of visual scene exploration into three phases: the first saccade, an initial guided exploration characterized by a gradual broadening of the fixation density, and a steady state that is reached after roughly 10 fixations. Saccade-target selection during the initial exploration and in the steady state is related to similar areas of interest, which are better predicted when including high-level features. In the search data set, fixation locations are determined predominantly by top-down processes. In contrast, the first fixation follows a different fixation density and contains a strong central fixation bias. Nonetheless, first fixations are guided strongly by image properties, and as early as 200 ms after image onset, fixations are better predicted by high-level information. We conclude that any low-level, bottom-up factors are mainly limited to the generation of the first saccade. All saccades are better explained when high-level features are considered, and later, this high-level, bottom-up control can be overruled by top-down influences. KW - saliency KW - fixations KW - natural scenes KW - visual search KW - eye movements Y1 - 2019 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1167/19.3.1 SN - 1534-7362 VL - 19 IS - 3 PB - Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology CY - Rockville ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Seelig, Stefan A. A1 - Rabe, Maximilian Michael A1 - Malem-Shinitski, Noa A1 - Risse, Sarah A1 - Reich, Sebastian A1 - Engbert, Ralf T1 - Bayesian parameter estimation for the SWIFT model of eye-movement control during reading JF - Journal of mathematical psychology N2 - Process-oriented theories of cognition must be evaluated against time-ordered observations. Here we present a representative example for data assimilation of the SWIFT model, a dynamical model of the control of fixation positions and fixation durations during natural reading of single sentences. First, we develop and test an approximate likelihood function of the model, which is a combination of a spatial, pseudo-marginal likelihood and a temporal likelihood obtained by probability density approximation Second, we implement a Bayesian approach to parameter inference using an adaptive Markov chain Monte Carlo procedure. Our results indicate that model parameters can be estimated reliably for individual subjects. We conclude that approximative Bayesian inference represents a considerable step forward for computational models of eye-movement control, where modeling of individual data on the basis of process-based dynamic models has not been possible so far. KW - dynamical models KW - reading KW - eye movements KW - saccades KW - likelihood function KW - Bayesian inference KW - MCMC KW - interindividual differences Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmp.2019.102313 SN - 0022-2496 SN - 1096-0880 VL - 95 PB - Elsevier CY - San Diego ER -