@article{SchadJuengerSeboldetal.2014,
  author    = {Schad, Daniel and Juenger, Elisabeth and Sebold, Miriam and Garbusow, Maria and Bernhardt, Nadine and Javadi, Amir-Homayoun and Zimmermann, Ulrich S. and Smolka, Michael N. and Heinz, Andreas and Rapp, Michael A. and Huys, Quentin J. M.},
  title     = {Processing speed enhances model-based over model-free reinforcement learning in the presence of high working memory functioning},
  series = {Frontiers in psychology},
  volume    = {5},
  journal   = {Frontiers in psychology},
  publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation},
  address   = {Lausanne},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01450},
  pages     = {10},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {Theories of decision-making and its neural substrates have long assumed the existence of two distinct and competing valuation systems, variously described as goal-directed vs. habitual, or, more recently and based on statistical arguments, as model-free vs. model-based reinforcement-learning. Though both have been shown to control choices, the cognitive abilities associated with these systems are under ongoing investigation. Here we examine the link to cognitive abilities, and find that individual differences in processing speed covary with a shift from model-free to model-based choice control in the presence of above-average working memory function. This suggests shared cognitive and neural processes; provides a bridge between literatures on intelligence and valuation; and may guide the development of process models of different valuation components. Furthermore, it provides a rationale for individual differences in the tendency to deploy valuation systems, which may be important for understanding the manifold neuropsychiatric diseases associated with malfunctions of valuation.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{SeboldChenOenaletal.2022,
  author    = {Sebold, Miriam and Chen, Hao and {\"O}nal, Aleyna and Kuitunen-Paul, S{\"o}ren and Mojtahedzadeh, Negin and Garbusow, Maria and Nebe, Stephan and Wittchen, Hans-Ulrich and Huys, Quentin J. M. and Schlagenhauf, Florian and Rapp, Michael A. and Smolka, Michael N. and Heinz, Andreas},
  title     = {Stronger prejudices are associated with decreased model-based control},
  series = {Frontiers in psychology},
  volume    = {12},
  journal   = {Frontiers in psychology},
  publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation},
  address   = {Lausanne},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767022},
  pages     = {10},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Background: Prejudices against minorities can be understood as habitually negative evaluations that are kept in spite of evidence to the contrary. Therefore, individuals with strong prejudices might be dominated by habitual or "automatic" reactions at the expense of more controlled reactions. Computational theories suggest individual differences in the balance between habitual/model-free and deliberative/model-based decision-making. Methods: 127 subjects performed the two Step task and completed the blatant and subtle prejudice scale. Results: By using analyses of choices and reaction times in combination with computational modeling, subjects with stronger blatant prejudices showed a shift away from model-based control. There was no association between these decision-making processes and subtle prejudices. Conclusion: These results support the idea that blatant prejudices toward minorities are related to a relative dominance of habitual decision-making. This finding has important implications for developing interventions that target to change prejudices across societies.},
  language  = {en}
}