@inproceedings{TeichFuehnerGolleetal.2022, author = {Teich, Paula and F{\"u}hner, Thea Heidi and Golle, Kathleen and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {How did the Sars-CoV-2 Pandemic affect the Physical Fitness of Primary School Children?}, doi = {10.25932/publishup-56085}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-560855}, pages = {20}, year = {2022}, abstract = {Throughout the years 2020 and 2021, schools were temporarily closed to slow the spread of SarsCoV-2. For some periods, children were locked out of sports in schools (physical education lessons, school sports working groups) and organized sports in sports clubs which often resulted in physical inactivity. Did these restrictions affect children's physical fitness? The EMOTIKON project (www.uni-potsdam.de/emotikon) annually assesses the physical fitness (cardiorespiratory endurance [6-minute-run test], coordination [star-run test], speed [20-m sprint test], lower [standing long jump test] and upper [ball push test] limbs muscle power, and balance [one-legged stance test]) of all third graders in the Federal State of Brandenburg, Germany. Participation is mandatory for all public primary schools. In the falls from 2016 to 2021, 83,476 keyage children (i.e., school enrollment according to the legal key date, between eight and nine years in third grade) from 512 schools were assessed with the EMOTIKON test battery. We tested the Covid pandemic effect on a composite score of the four highly correlated physical fitness tests assessing cardiorespiratory endurance, coordination, speed and powerLOW and on another composite score of the three running tests (cardiorespiratory endurance, coordination, speed), as well as separately on all six physical fitness components. Secular trends for each of the physical fitness components and differences between schools and children were taken into account in linear mixed models. We found a negative Covid pandemic effect on the two composite physical fitness scores, as well as on cardiorespiratory endurance, coordination, and speed. We found a positive Covid pandemic effect on powerLOW. Coordination was associated with the largest negative Covid pandemic effect, also passing the threshold of smallest meaningful change (SMC, i.e., 0.2 Cohen's d) when accumulated across two years. Given the educational context, Covid pandemic effects were also compared relative to the expected age-related development of the physical fitness components between eight and nine years. The Covid pandemic-related developmental costs/gains ranged from three to seven months relative to a longitudinal age effect, and from five to 17 months relative to a cross-sectional age effect. We propose that a longitudinal assessment yields a more reliable estimate of the developmental (age-related) gain than a cross-sectional one. Therefore, we consider the smaller Covid pandemic-related developmental costs/gains to be more credible. Interestingly, on the school level, „fitter" schools (relatively higher Grand Mean) exhibited larger negative Covid pandemic effects than schools with a lower physical fitness score. Negative Covid pandemic effects for the three run tasks were also found by B{\"a}hr et al. (2022), who tested the physical fitness of 16,496 Thuringian third-graders from 292 schools with the same six physical fitness tests used in EMOTIKON. Our results may be used to prioritize health-related interventions.}, language = {en} } @article{SchadVasishthHohensteinetal.2020, author = {Schad, Daniel and Vasishth, Shravan and Hohenstein, Sven and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {How to capitalize on a priori contrasts in linear (mixed) models}, series = {Journal of memory and language}, volume = {110}, journal = {Journal of memory and language}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {San Diego}, issn = {0749-596X}, doi = {10.1016/j.jml.2019.104038}, pages = {40}, year = {2020}, abstract = {Factorial experiments in research on memory, language, and in other areas are often analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). However, for effects with more than one numerator degrees of freedom, e.g., for experimental factors with more than two levels, the ANOVA omnibus F-test is not informative about the source of a main effect or interaction. Because researchers typically have specific hypotheses about which condition means differ from each other, a priori contrasts (i.e., comparisons planned before the sample means are known) between specific conditions or combinations of conditions are the appropriate way to represent such hypotheses in the statistical model. Many researchers have pointed out that contrasts should be "tested instead of, rather than as a supplement to, the ordinary 'omnibus' F test" (Hays, 1973, p. 601). In this tutorial, we explain the mathematics underlying different kinds of contrasts (i.e., treatment, sum, repeated, polynomial, custom, nested, interaction contrasts), discuss their properties, and demonstrate how they are applied in the R System for Statistical Computing (R Core Team, 2018). In this context, we explain the generalized inverse which is needed to compute the coefficients for contrasts that test hypotheses that are not covered by the default set of contrasts. A detailed understanding of contrast coding is crucial for successful and correct specification in linear models (including linear mixed models). Contrasts defined a priori yield far more useful confirmatory tests of experimental hypotheses than standard omnibus F-tests. Reproducible code is available from https://osf.io/7ukf6/.}, language = {en} } @misc{FuehnerGranacherGolleetal.2021, author = {F{\"u}hner, Thea Heidi and Granacher, Urs and Golle, Kathleen and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Age and sex effects in physical fitness components of 108,295 third graders including 515 primary schools and 9 cohorts}, series = {Zweitver{\"o}ffentlichungen der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, journal = {Zweitver{\"o}ffentlichungen der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, issn = {1866-8364}, doi = {10.25932/publishup-54982}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-549827}, pages = {1 -- 13}, year = {2021}, abstract = {Children's physical fitness development and related moderating effects of age and sex are well documented, especially boys' and girls' divergence during puberty. The situation might be different during prepuberty. As girls mature approximately two years earlier than boys, we tested a possible convergence of performance with five tests representing four components of physical fitness in a large sample of 108,295 eight-year old third-graders. Within this single prepubertal year of life and irrespective of the test, performance increased linearly with chronological age, and boys outperformed girls to a larger extent in tests requiring muscle mass for successful performance. Tests differed in the magnitude of age effects (gains), but there was no evidence for an interaction between age and sex. Moreover, "physical fitness" of schools correlated at r = 0.48 with their age effect which might imply that "fit schools" promote larger gains; expected secular trends from 2011 to 2019 were replicated.}, language = {en} } @article{FuehnerGranacherGolleetal.2021, author = {F{\"u}hner, Thea Heidi and Granacher, Urs and Golle, Kathleen and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Age and sex effects in physical fitness components of 108,295 third graders including 515 primary schools and 9 cohorts}, series = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {11}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, publisher = {Nature Portfolio}, address = {Berlin}, issn = {2045-2322}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-021-97000-4}, pages = {1 -- 13}, year = {2021}, abstract = {Children's physical fitness development and related moderating effects of age and sex are well documented, especially boys' and girls' divergence during puberty. The situation might be different during prepuberty. As girls mature approximately two years earlier than boys, we tested a possible convergence of performance with five tests representing four components of physical fitness in a large sample of 108,295 eight-year old third-graders. Within this single prepubertal year of life and irrespective of the test, performance increased linearly with chronological age, and boys outperformed girls to a larger extent in tests requiring muscle mass for successful performance. Tests differed in the magnitude of age effects (gains), but there was no evidence for an interaction between age and sex. Moreover, "physical fitness" of schools correlated at r = 0.48 with their age effect which might imply that "fit schools" promote larger gains; expected secular trends from 2011 to 2019 were replicated.}, language = {en} } @article{LiWangMoetal.2018, author = {Li, Nan and Wang, Suiping and Mo, Luxi and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Contextual constraint and preview time modulate the semantic preview effect}, series = {The quarterly journal of experimental psychology}, volume = {71}, journal = {The quarterly journal of experimental psychology}, number = {1}, publisher = {Sage Publ.}, address = {London}, issn = {1747-0218}, doi = {10.1080/17470218.2017.1310914}, pages = {241 -- 249}, year = {2018}, abstract = {Word recognition in sentence reading is influenced by information from both preview and context. Recently, semantic preview effect (SPE) was observed being modulated by the constraint of context, indicating that context might accelerate the processing of semantically related preview words. Besides, SPE was found to depend on preview time, which suggests that SPE may change with different processing stages of preview words. Therefore, it raises the question of whether preview time-dependent SPE would be modulated by contextual constraint. In this study, we not only investigated the impact of contextual constraint on SPE in Chinese reading but also examined its dependency on preview time. The preview word and the target word were identical, semantically related or unrelated to the target word. The results showed a significant three-way interaction: The SPE depended on contextual constraint and preview time. In separate analyses for low and high contextual constraint of target words, the SPE significantly decreased with an increase in preview duration when the target word was of low constraint in the sentence. The effect was numerically in the same direction but weaker and statistically nonsignificant when the target word was highly constrained in the sentence. The results indicate that word processing in sentences is a dynamic process of integrating information from both preview (bottom-up) and context (top-down).}, language = {en} } @article{ZhouWangShuetal.2018, author = {Zhou, Wei and Wang, Aiping and Shu, Hua and Kliegl, Reinhold and Yan, Ming}, title = {Word segmentation by alternating colors facilitates eye guidance in Chinese reading}, series = {Memory \& cognition}, volume = {46}, journal = {Memory \& cognition}, number = {5}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {0090-502X}, doi = {10.3758/s13421-018-0797-5}, pages = {729 -- 740}, year = {2018}, abstract = {During sentence reading, low spatial frequency information afforded by spaces between words is the primary factor for eye guidance in spaced writing systems, whereas saccade generation for unspaced writing systems is less clear and under debate. In the present study, we investigated whether word-boundary information, provided by alternating colors (consistent or inconsistent with word-boundary information) influences saccade-target selection in Chinese. In Experiment 1, as compared to a baseline (i.e., uniform color) condition, word segmentation with alternating color shifted fixation location towards the center of words. In contrast, incorrect word segmentation shifted fixation location towards the beginning of words. In Experiment 2, we used a gaze-contingent paradigm to restrict the color manipulation only to the upcoming parafoveal words and replicated the results, including fixation location effects, as observed in Experiment 1. These results indicate that Chinese readers are capable of making use of parafoveal word-boundary knowledge for saccade generation, even if such information is unfamiliar to them. The present study provides novel support for the hypothesis that word segmentation is involved in the decision about where to fixate next during Chinese reading.}, language = {en} } @article{MatuschekKliegl2017, author = {Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {On the ambiguity of interaction and nonlinear main effects in a regime of dependent covariates}, series = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, volume = {50}, journal = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, number = {5}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {1554-351X}, doi = {10.3758/s13428-017-0956-9}, pages = {1882 -- 1894}, year = {2017}, abstract = {The analysis of large experimental datasets frequently reveals significant interactions that are difficult to interpret within the theoretical framework guiding the research. Some of these interactions actually arise from the presence of unspecified nonlinear main effects and statistically dependent covariates in the statistical model. Importantly, such nonlinear main effects may be compatible (or, at least, not incompatible) with the current theoretical framework. In the present literature, this issue has only been studied in terms of correlated (linearly dependent) covariates. Here we generalize to nonlinear main effects (i.e., main effects of arbitrary shape) and dependent covariates. We propose a novel nonparametric method to test for ambiguous interactions where present parametric methods fail. We illustrate the method with a set of simulations and with reanalyses (a) of effects of parental education on their children's educational expectations and (b) of effects of word properties on fixation locations during reading of natural sentences, specifically of effects of length and morphological complexity of the word to be fixated next. The resolution of such ambiguities facilitates theoretical progress.}, language = {en} } @article{HortobagyiUematsuSandersetal.2018, author = {Hortobagyi, Tibor and Uematsu, Azusa and Sanders, Lianne and Kliegl, Reinhold and Tollar, Jozsef and Moraes, Renato and Granacher, Urs}, title = {Beam Walking to Assess Dynamic Balance in Health and Disease}, series = {Gerontology}, volume = {65}, journal = {Gerontology}, number = {4}, publisher = {Karger}, address = {Basel}, issn = {0304-324X}, doi = {10.1159/000493360}, pages = {332 -- 339}, year = {2018}, abstract = {Background: Dynamic balance keeps the vertical projection of the center of mass within the base of support while walking. Dynamic balance tests are used to predict the risks of falls and eventual falls. The psychometric properties of most dynamic balance tests are unsatisfactory and do not comprise an actual loss of balance while walking. Objectives: Using beam walking distance as a measure of dynamic balance, the BEAM consortium will determine the psychometric properties, lifespan and patient reference values, the relationship with selected "dynamic balance tests," and the accuracy of beam walking distance to predict falls. Methods: This cross-sectional observational study will examine healthy adults in 7 decades (n = 432) at 4 centers. Center 5 will examine patients (n = 100) diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, stroke, and balance disorders. In test 1, all participants will be measured for demographics, medical history, muscle strength, gait, static balance, dynamic balance using beam walking under single (beam walking only) and dual task conditions (beam walking while concurrently performing an arithmetic task), and several cognitive functions. Patients and healthy participants age 50 years or older will be additionally measured for fear of falling, history of falls, miniBESTest, functional reach on a force platform, timed up and go, and reactive balance. All participants age 50 years or older will be recalled to report fear of falling and fall history 6 and 12 months after test 1. In test 2, seven to ten days after test 1, healthy young adults and age 50 years or older (n = 40) will be retested for reliability of beam walking performance. Conclusion: We expect to find that beam walking performance vis-{\`a}-vis the traditionally used balance outcomes predicts more accurately fall risks and falls. Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT03532984.}, language = {en} } @article{TetznerKlieglKraheetal.2017, author = {Tetzner, Julia and Kliegl, Reinhold and Krah{\´e}, Barbara and Busching, Robert and Esser, G{\"u}nter}, title = {Developmental problems in adolescence}, series = {Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology}, volume = {53}, journal = {Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {New York}, issn = {0193-3973}, doi = {10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.003}, pages = {40 -- 53}, year = {2017}, abstract = {This longitudinal study investigated patterns of developmental problems across depression, aggression, and academic achievement during adolescence, using two measurement points two years apart (N = 1665; age T1: M = 13.14; female = 49.6\%). Latent Profile Analyses and Latent Transition Analyses yielded four main findings: A three-type solution provided the best fit to the data: an asymptomatic type (i.e., low problem scores in all three domains), a depressed type (i.e., high scores in depression), an aggressive type (i.e., high scores in aggression). Profile types were invariant over the two data waves but differed between girls and boys, revealing gender specific patterns of comorbidity. Stabilities over time were high for the asymptomatic type and for types that represented problems in one domain, but moderate for comorbid types. Differences in demographic variables (i.e., age, socio-economic status) and individual characteristics (i.e., self-esteem, dysfunctional cognitions, cognitive capabilities) predicted profile type memberships and longitudinal transitions between types.}, language = {en} } @article{LaurinavichyuteSekerinaAlexeevaetal.2019, author = {Laurinavichyute, Anna and Sekerina, Irina A. and Alexeeva, Svetlana and Bagdasaryan, Kristine and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Russian Sentence Corpus: Benchmark measures of eye movements in reading in Russian}, series = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, volume = {51}, journal = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, number = {3}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {1554-351X}, doi = {10.3758/s13428-018-1051-6}, pages = {1161 -- 1178}, year = {2019}, abstract = {This article introduces a new corpus of eye movements in silent readingthe Russian Sentence Corpus (RSC). Russian uses the Cyrillic script, which has not yet been investigated in cross-linguistic eye movement research. As in every language studied so far, we confirmed the expected effects of low-level parameters, such as word length, frequency, and predictability, on the eye movements of skilled Russian readers. These findings allow us to add Slavic languages using Cyrillic script (exemplified by Russian) to the growing number of languages with different orthographies, ranging from the Roman-based European languages to logographic Asian ones, whose basic eye movement benchmarks conform to the universal comparative science of reading (Share, 2008). We additionally report basic descriptive corpus statistics and three exploratory investigations of the effects of Russian morphology on the basic eye movement measures, which illustrate the kinds of questions that researchers can answer using the RSC. The annotated corpus is freely available from its project page at the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/x5q2r/.}, language = {en} } @article{YanPanChangetal.2019, author = {Yan, Ming and Pan, Jinger and Chang, Wenshuo and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Read sideways or not: vertical saccade advantage in sentence reading}, series = {Reading and writing : an interdisciplinary journal}, volume = {32}, journal = {Reading and writing : an interdisciplinary journal}, number = {8}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {Dordrecht}, issn = {0922-4777}, doi = {10.1007/s11145-018-9930-x}, pages = {1911 -- 1926}, year = {2019}, abstract = {During the reading of alphabetic scripts and scene perception, eye movements are programmed more efficiently in horizontal direction than in vertical direction. We propose that such a directional advantage may be due the overwhelming reading experience in the horizontal direction. Writing orientation is highly flexible for Traditional Chinese sentences. We compare horizontal and vertical eye movements during reading of such sentences and provide first evidence of a text-orientation effect on eye-movement control during reading. In addition to equivalent reading speed in both directions, more fine-grained analyses demonstrate a tradeoff between longer fixation durations and better fixation locations in vertical than in horizontal reading. Our results suggest that with extensive reading experience, Traditional Chinese readers can generate saccades more efficiently in vertical than in horizontal direction.}, language = {en} } @article{YanPanKliegl2019, author = {Yan, Ming and Pan, Jinger and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Eye Movement Control in Chinese Reading: A Cross-Sectional Study}, series = {Developmental psychology}, volume = {55}, journal = {Developmental psychology}, number = {11}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0012-1649}, doi = {10.1037/dev0000819}, pages = {2275 -- 2285}, year = {2019}, abstract = {The present study explored the age-related changes of eye movement control in reading-that is, where to send the eyes and when to move them. Different orthographies present readers with somewhat different problems to solve, and this might, in turn, be reflected in different patterns of development of reading skill. Participants of different developmental levels (Grade 3, N = 30; Grade 5, N = 27 and adults, N = 27) were instructed to read sentences for comprehension while their eye movements were recorded. Contrary to previous findings that have been well documented indicating early maturation of saccade generation in English, current results showed that saccade generation among Chinese readers was still under development at Grade 5, although immediate lexical processing was relatively well-established. The distinct age-related changes in eye movements are attributable to certain linguistic properties of Chinese including the lack of interword spaces and word boundary uncertainty. The present study offers an example of how human eye movement adapts to the orthographic environment.}, language = {en} } @article{YanWangSongetal.2019, author = {Yan, Ming and Wang, Aiping and Song, Hosu and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Parafoveal processing of phonology and semantics during the reading of Korean sentences}, series = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, volume = {193}, journal = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Amsterdam}, issn = {0010-0277}, doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104009}, pages = {7}, year = {2019}, abstract = {The present study sets out to address two fundamental questions in the reading of continuous texts: Whether semantic and phonological information from upcoming words can be accessed during natural reading. In the present study we investigated parafoveal processing during the reading of Korean sentences, manipulating semantic and phonological information from parafoveal preview words. In addition to the first evidence for a semantic preview effect in Korean, we found that Korean readers have stronger and more long-lasting phonological than semantic activation from parafoveal words in second-pass reading. The present study provides an example that human mind can flexibly adjust processing priority to different types of information based on the linguistic environment.}, language = {en} } @article{MassonRabeKliegl2017, author = {Masson, Michael E. J. and Rabe, Maximilian M. and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Modulation of additive and interactive effects by trial history revisited}, series = {Memory \& cognition}, volume = {45}, journal = {Memory \& cognition}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {0090-502X}, doi = {10.3758/s13421-016-0666-z}, pages = {480 -- 492}, year = {2017}, language = {en} } @article{MatuschekKlieglVasishthetal.2017, author = {Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold and Vasishth, Shravan and Baayen, Harald R. and Bates, Douglas}, title = {Balancing Type I error and power in linear mixed models}, series = {Journal of memory and language}, volume = {94}, journal = {Journal of memory and language}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {San Diego}, issn = {0749-596X}, doi = {10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001}, pages = {305 -- 315}, year = {2017}, abstract = {Linear mixed-effects models have increasingly replaced mixed-model analyses of variance for statistical inference in factorial psycholinguistic experiments. Although LMMs have many advantages over ANOVA, like ANOVAs, setting them up for data analysis also requires some care. One simple option, when numerically possible, is to fit the full variance covariance structure of random effects (the maximal model; Barr, Levy, Scheepers \& Tily, 2013), presumably to keep Type I error down to the nominal a in the presence of random effects. Although it is true that fitting a model with only random intercepts may lead to higher Type I error, fitting a maximal model also has a cost: it can lead to a significant loss of power. We demonstrate this with simulations and suggest that for typical psychological and psycholinguistic data, higher power is achieved without inflating Type I error rate if a model selection criterion is used to select a random effect structure that is supported by the data. (C) 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.}, language = {en} } @article{BaayenVasishthKliegletal.2017, author = {Baayen, Harald R. and Vasishth, Shravan and Kliegl, Reinhold and Bates, Douglas}, title = {The cave of shadows: Addressing the human factor with generalized additive mixed models}, series = {Journal of memory and language}, volume = {94}, journal = {Journal of memory and language}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {San Diego}, issn = {0749-596X}, doi = {10.1016/j.jml.2016.11.006}, pages = {206 -- 234}, year = {2017}, language = {en} } @misc{HohensteinMatuschekKliegl2017, author = {Hohenstein, Sven and Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Linked linear mixed models: A joint analysis of fixation locations and fixation durations in natural reading}, series = {Psychonomic bulletin \& review : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, volume = {24}, journal = {Psychonomic bulletin \& review : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {1069-9384}, doi = {10.3758/s13423-016-1138-y}, pages = {637 -- 651}, year = {2017}, abstract = {The complexity of eye-movement control during reading allows measurement of many dependent variables, the most prominent ones being fixation durations and their locations in words. In current practice, either variable may serve as dependent variable or covariate for the other in linear mixed models (LMMs) featuring also psycholinguistic covariates of word recognition and sentence comprehension. Rather than analyzing fixation location and duration with separate LMMs, we propose linking the two according to their sequential dependency. Specifically, we include predicted fixation location (estimated in the first LMM from psycholinguistic covariates) and its associated residual fixation location as covariates in the second, fixation-duration LMM. This linked LMM affords a distinction between direct and indirect effects (mediated through fixation location) of psycholinguistic covariates on fixation durations. Results confirm the robustness of distributed processing in the perceptual span. They also offer a resolution of the paradox of the inverted optimal viewing position (IOVP) effect (i.e., longer fixation durations in the center than at the beginning and end of words) although the opposite (i.e., an OVP effect) is predicted from default assumptions of psycholinguistic processing efficiency: The IOVP effect in fixation durations is due to the residual fixation-location covariate, presumably driven primarily by saccadic error, and the OVP effect (at least the left part of it) is uncovered with the predicted fixation-location covariate, capturing the indirect effects of psycholinguistic covariates. We expect that linked LMMs will be useful for the analysis of other dynamically related multiple outcomes, a conundrum of most psychonomic research.}, language = {en} } @article{BeurskensHaegerKliegletal.2016, author = {Beurskens, Rainer and Haeger, Matthias and Kliegl, Reinhold and Roecker, Kai and Granacher, Urs}, title = {Postural Control in Dual-Task Situations: Does Whole-Body Fatigue Matter?}, series = {PLoS one}, volume = {11}, journal = {PLoS one}, publisher = {PLoS}, address = {San Fransisco}, issn = {1932-6203}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0147392}, pages = {1379 -- 1384}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Postural control is important to cope with demands of everyday life. It has been shown that both attentional demand (i.e., cognitive processing) and fatigue affect postural control in young adults. However, their combined effect is still unresolved. Therefore, we investigated the effects of fatigue on single-(ST) and dual-task (DT) postural control. Twenty young subjects (age: 23.7 +/- 2.7) performed an all-out incremental treadmill protocol. After each completed stage, one-legged-stance performance on a force platform under ST (i.e., one-legged-stance only) and DT conditions (i.e., one-legged-stance while subtracting serial 3s) was registered. On a second test day, subjects conducted the same balance tasks for the control condition (i.e., non-fatigued). Results showed that heart rate, lactate, and ventilation increased following fatigue (all p < 0.001; d = 4.2-21). Postural sway and sway velocity increased during DT compared to ST (all p < 0.001; d = 1.9-2.0) and fatigued compared to non-fatigued condition (all p < 0.001; d = 3.3-4.2). In addition, postural control deteriorated with each completed stage during the treadmill protocol (all p < 0.01; d = 1.9-3.3). The addition of an attention-demanding interference task did not further impede one-legged-stance performance. Although both additional attentional demand and physical fatigue affected postural control in healthy young adults, there was no evidence for an overadditive effect (i.e., fatigue-related performance decrements in postural control were similar under ST and DT conditions). Thus, attentional resources were sufficient to cope with the DT situations in the fatigue condition of this experiment.}, language = {en} } @article{OhlWohltatKliegletal.2016, author = {Ohl, Sven and Wohltat, Christian and Kliegl, Reinhold and Pollatos, Olga and Engbert, Ralf}, title = {Microsaccades Are Coupled to Heartbeat}, series = {The journal of neuroscience}, volume = {36}, journal = {The journal of neuroscience}, publisher = {Society for Neuroscience}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0270-6474}, doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2211-15.2016}, pages = {1237 -- 1241}, year = {2016}, abstract = {During visual fixation, the eye generates microsaccades and slower components of fixational eye movements that are part of the visual processing strategy in humans. Here, we show that ongoing heartbeat is coupled to temporal rate variations in the generation of microsaccades. Using coregistration of eye recording and ECG in humans, we tested the hypothesis that microsaccade onsets are coupled to the relative phase of the R-R intervals in heartbeats. We observed significantly more microsaccades during the early phase after the R peak in the ECG. This form of coupling between heartbeat and eye movements was substantiated by the additional finding of a coupling between heart phase and motion activity in slow fixational eye movements; i.e., retinal image slip caused by physiological drift. Our findings therefore demonstrate a coupling of the oculomotor system and ongoing heartbeat, which provides further evidence for bodily influences on visuomotor functioning.}, language = {en} } @article{GoetheOberauerKliegl2016, author = {G{\"o}the, Katrin and Oberauer, Klaus and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Eliminating dual-task costs by minimizing crosstalk between tasks: The role of modality and feature pairings}, series = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, volume = {150}, journal = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Amsterdam}, issn = {0010-0277}, doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2016.02.003}, pages = {92 -- 108}, year = {2016}, abstract = {We tested the independent influences of two content-based factors on dual-task costs, and on the parallel processing ability: The pairing of S-R modalities and the pairing of relevant features between stimuli and responses of two tasks. The two pairing factors were realized across four dual-task groups. Within each group the two tasks comprised two different stimulus modalities (visual and auditory), two different relevant stimulus features (spatial and verbal) and two response modalities (manual and vocal). Pairings of S-R modalities (standard: visual-manual and auditory-vocal, non-standard: visual-vocal and auditory manual) and feature pairings (standard: spatial-manual and verbal-vocal, non-standard: spatial-vocal and verbal-manual) varied across groups. All participants practiced their respective dual-task combination in a paradigm with simultaneous stimulus onset before being transferred to a psychological refractory period paradigm varying stimulus-onset asynchrony. A comparison at the end of practice revealed similar dual-task costs and similar pairing effects in both paradigms. Dual-task costs depended on modality and feature pairings. Groups training with non-standard feature pairings (i.e., verbal stimulus features mapped to spatially separated response keys, or spatial stimulus features mapped to verbal responses) and non-standard modality pairings (i.e., auditory stimulus mapped to manual response, or visual stimulus mapped to vocal responses) had higher dual-task costs than respective standard pairings. In contrast, irrespective of modality pairing dual-task costs virtually disappeared with standard feature pairings after practice in both paradigms. The results can be explained by crosstalk between feature-binding processes for the two tasks. Crosstalk was present for non-standard but absent for standard feature pairings. Therefore, standard feature pairings enabled parallel processing at the end of practice. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.}, language = {en} } @article{OhlKliegl2016, author = {Ohl, Sven and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Revealing the time course of signals influencing the generation of}, series = {Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision.}, volume = {124}, journal = {Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision.}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Oxford}, issn = {0042-6989}, doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2016.06.007}, pages = {52 -- 58}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Saccadic eye movements are frequently followed by smaller secondary saccades which are generally assumed to correct for the error in primary saccade landing position. However, secondary saccades can also occur after accurate primary saccades and they are often as small as microsaccades, therefore raising the need to further scrutinize the processes involved in secondary saccade generation. Following up a previous study, we analyzed secondary saccades using rate analysis which allows us to quantify experimental effects as shifts in distributions, therefore going beyond comparisons of mean differences. We use Aalen's additive hazards model to delineate the time course of key influences on the secondary saccade rate. In addition to the established effect of primary saccade error, we observed a time-varying influence of under- vs. overshooting - with a higher risk of generating secondary saccades following undershoots. Moreover, increasing target eccentricity influenced the programming of secondary saccades, therefore demonstrating that error-unrelated variables co-determine secondary saccade programs. Our results provide new insights into the generative mechanisms of small saccades during postsaccadic fixation that need to be accounted for by secondary saccade models.}, language = {en} } @article{NuthmannVituEngbertetal.2016, author = {Nuthmann, Antje and Vitu, Francoise and Engbert, Ralf and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {No Evidence for a Saccadic Range Effect for Visually Guided and Memory-Guided Saccades in Simple Saccade-Targeting Tasks}, series = {PLoS one}, volume = {11}, journal = {PLoS one}, publisher = {PLoS}, address = {San Fransisco}, issn = {1932-6203}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0162449}, pages = {9935 -- 9943}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Saccades to single targets in peripheral vision are typically characterized by an undershoot bias. Putting this bias to a test, Kapoula [1] used a paradigm in which observers were presented with two different sets of target eccentricities that partially overlapped each other. Her data were suggestive of a saccadic range effect (SRE): There was a tendency for saccades to overshoot close targets and undershoot far targets in a block, suggesting that there was a response bias towards the center of eccentricities in a given block. Our Experiment 1 was a close replication of the original study by Kapoula [1]. In addition, we tested whether the SRE is sensitive to top-down requirements associated with the task, and we also varied the target presentation duration. In Experiments 1 and 2, we expected to replicate the SRE for a visual discrimination task. The simple visual saccade-targeting task in Experiment 3, entailing minimal top-down influence, was expected to elicit a weaker SRE. Voluntary saccades to remembered target locations in Experiment 3 were expected to elicit the strongest SRE. Contrary to these predictions, we did not observe a SRE in any of the tasks. Our findings complement the results reported by Gillen et al. [2] who failed to find the effect in a saccade-targeting task with a very brief target presentation. Together, these results suggest that unlike arm movements, saccadic eye movements are not biased towards making saccades of a constant, optimal amplitude for the task.}, language = {en} } @article{BeurskensMuehlbauerGrabowetal.2016, author = {Beurskens, Rainer and M{\"u}hlbauer, Thomas and Grabow, Lena and Kliegl, Reinhold and Granacher, Urs}, title = {Effects of Backpack Carriage on Dual-Task Performance in Children During Standing and Walking}, series = {Journal of motor behavior}, volume = {48}, journal = {Journal of motor behavior}, publisher = {Wiley-VCH}, address = {Abingdon}, issn = {0022-2895}, doi = {10.1080/00222895.2016.1152137}, pages = {500 -- 508}, year = {2016}, language = {en} } @article{YanKliegl2016, author = {Yan, Ming and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {CarPrice versus CarpRice: Word Boundary Ambiguity Influences Saccade Target Selection During the Reading of Chinese Sentences}, series = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, volume = {42}, journal = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0278-7393}, doi = {10.1037/xlm0000276}, pages = {1832 -- 1838}, year = {2016}, abstract = {As a contribution to a theoretical debate about the degree of high-level influences on saccade targeting during sentence reading, we investigated eye movements during the reading of structurally ambiguous Chinese character strings and examined whether parafoveal word segmentation could influence saccade-target selection. As expected, ambiguous strings took longer to process. More critically there were theoretically relevant interactions between ambiguity and launch site when first-fixation location and saccade amplitude served as dependent variables: Ambiguous strings in the parafovea triggered longer saccades and more rightward fixations for close launch sites than unambiguous ones; the reverse result was obtained for far launch sites. These crossover interactions indicate that parafoveal word segmentation influences saccade generation in Chinese and provide support of the hypothesis that high-level information can be involved in the decision about where to fixate next.}, language = {en} } @misc{HohensteinMatuschekKliegl2016, author = {Hohenstein, Sven and Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Linked linear mixed models}, series = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, journal = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, number = {552}, issn = {1866-8364}, doi = {10.25932/publishup-42828}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-428281}, pages = {15}, year = {2016}, abstract = {The complexity of eye-movement control during reading allows measurement of many dependent variables, the most prominent ones being fixation durations and their locations in words. In current practice, either variable may serve as dependent variable or covariate for the other in linear mixed models (LMMs) featuring also psycholinguistic covariates of word recognition and sentence comprehension. Rather than analyzing fixation location and duration with separate LMMs, we propose linking the two according to their sequential dependency. Specifically, we include predicted fixation location (estimated in the first LMM from psycholinguistic covariates) and its associated residual fixation location as covariates in the second, fixation-duration LMM. This linked LMM affords a distinction between direct and indirect effects (mediated through fixation location) of psycholinguistic covariates on fixation durations. Results confirm the robustness of distributed processing in the perceptual span. They also offer a resolution of the paradox of the inverted optimal viewing position (IOVP) effect (i.e., longer fixation durations in the center than at the beginning and end of words) although the opposite (i.e., an OVP effect) is predicted from default assumptions of psycholinguistic processing efficiency: The IOVP effect in fixation durations is due to the residual fixation-location covariate, presumably driven primarily by saccadic error, and the OVP effect (at least the left part of it) is uncovered with the predicted fixation-location covariate, capturing the indirect effects of psycholinguistic covariates. We expect that linked LMMs will be useful for the analysis of other dynamically related multiple outcomes, a conundrum of most psychonomic research.}, language = {en} } @misc{NuthmannVituEngbertetal.2015, author = {Nuthmann, Antje and Vitu, Fran{\c{c}}oise and Engbert, Ralf and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {No evidence for a saccadic range effect for visually guided and memory-guided saccades in simple saccade-targeting tasks}, series = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, journal = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, number = {506}, issn = {1866-8364}, doi = {10.25932/publishup-41163}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-411639}, pages = {27}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Saccades to single targets in peripheral vision are typically characterized by an undershoot bias. Putting this bias to a test, Kapoula [1] used a paradigm in which observers were presented with two different sets of target eccentricities that partially overlapped each other. Her data were suggestive of a saccadic range effect (SRE): There was a tendency for saccades to overshoot close targets and undershoot far targets in a block, suggesting that there was a response bias towards the center of eccentricities in a given block. Our Experiment 1 was a close replication of the original study by Kapoula [1]. In addition, we tested whether the SRE is sensitive to top-down requirements associated with the task, and we also varied the target presentation duration. In Experiments 1 and 2, we expected to replicate the SRE for a visual discrimination task. The simple visual saccade-targeting task in Experiment 3, entailing minimal top-down influence, was expected to elicit a weaker SRE. Voluntary saccades to remembered target locations in Experiment 3 were expected to elicit the strongest SRE. Contrary to these predictions, we did not observe a SRE in any of the tasks. Our findings complement the results reported by Gillen et al. [2] who failed to find the effect in a saccade-targeting task with a very brief target presentation. Together, these results suggest that unlike arm movements, saccadic eye movements are not biased towards making saccades of a constant, optimal amplitude for the task.}, language = {en} } @misc{MatuschekKlieglHolschneider2015, author = {Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold and Holschneider, Matthias}, title = {Smoothing Spline ANOVA decomposition of arbitrary Splines}, series = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe}, journal = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe}, number = {537}, issn = {1866-8372}, doi = {10.25932/publishup-40978}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-409788}, pages = {15}, year = {2015}, abstract = {The Smoothing Spline ANOVA (SS-ANOVA) requires a specialized construction of basis and penalty terms in order to incorporate prior knowledge about the data to be fitted. Typically, one resorts to the most general approach using tensor product splines. This implies severe constraints on the correlation structure, i.e. the assumption of isotropy of smoothness can not be incorporated in general. This may increase the variance of the spline fit, especially if only a relatively small set of observations are given. In this article, we propose an alternative method that allows to incorporate prior knowledge without the need to construct specialized bases and penalties, allowing the researcher to choose the spline basis and penalty according to the prior knowledge of the observations rather than choosing them according to the analysis to be done. The two approaches are compared with an artificial example and with analyses of fixation durations during reading.}, language = {en} } @misc{FroemerDimigenNiefindetal.2015, author = {Fr{\"o}mer, Romy and Dimigen, Olaf and Niefind, Florian and Kliegl, Reinhold and Sommer, Werner}, title = {Are individual differences in reading speed related to extrafoveal visual acuity and crowding?}, series = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, journal = {Postprints der Universit{\"a}t Potsdam : Humanwissenschaftliche Reihe}, number = {494}, issn = {1866-8364}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-408003}, pages = {18}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Readers differ considerably in their speed of self-paced reading. One factor known to influence fixation durations in reading is the preprocessing of words in parafoveal vision. Here we investigated whether individual differences in reading speed or the amount of information extracted from upcoming words (the preview benefit) can be explained by basic differences in extrafoveal vision-i.e., the ability to recognize peripheral letters with or without the presence of flanking letters. Forty participants were given an adaptive test to determine their eccentricity thresholds for the identification of letters presented either in isolation (extrafoveal acuity) or flanked by other letters (crowded letter recognition). In a separate eye-tracking experiment, the same participants read lists of words from left to right, while the preview of the upcoming words was manipulated with the gaze-contingent moving window technique. Relationships between dependent measures were analyzed on the observational level and with linear mixed models. We obtained highly reliable estimates both for extrafoveal letter identification (acuity and crowding) and measures of reading speed (overall reading speed, size of preview benefit). Reading speed was higher in participants with larger uncrowded windows. However, the strength of this relationship was moderate and it was only observed if other sources of variance in reading speed (e.g., the occurrence of regressive saccades) were eliminated. Moreover, the size of the preview benefit-an important factor in normal reading-was larger in participants with better extrafoveal acuity. Together, these results indicate a significant albeit moderate contribution of extrafoveal vision to individual differences in reading speed.}, language = {en} } @article{YanZhouShuetal.2015, author = {Yan, Ming and Zhou, Wei and Shu, Hua and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Perceptual span depends on font size during the reading of chinese sentences}, series = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, volume = {41}, journal = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, number = {1}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0278-7393}, doi = {10.1037/a0038097}, pages = {209 -- 219}, year = {2015}, abstract = {The present study explored the perceptual span (i.e., the physical extent of an area from which useful visual information is extracted during a single fixation) during the reading of Chinese sentences in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, we tested whether the rightward span can go beyond 3 characters when visually similar masks were used. Results showed that Chinese readers needed at least 4 characters to the right of fixation to maintain a normal reading behavior when visually similar masks were used and when characters were displayed in small fonts, indicating that the span is dynamically influenced by masking materials. In Experiments 2 and 3, we asked whether the perceptual span varies as a function of font size in spaced (German) and unspaced (Chinese) scripts. Results clearly suggest perceptual span depends on font size in Chinese, but we failed to find such evidence for German. We propose that the perceptual span in Chinese is flexible; it is strongly constrained by its language-specific properties such as high information density and lack of word spacing. Implications for saccade-target selection during the reading of Chinese sentences are discussed.}, language = {en} } @article{FroemerDimigenNiefindetal.2015, author = {Fr{\"o}mer, Romy and Dimigen, Olaf and Niefind, Florian and Krause, Niels and Kliegl, Reinhold and Sommer, Werner}, title = {Are Individual Differences in Reading Speed Related to Extrafoveal Visual Acuity and Crowding?}, series = {PLoS one}, volume = {10}, journal = {PLoS one}, number = {3}, publisher = {PLoS}, address = {San Fransisco}, issn = {1932-6203}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0121986}, pages = {18}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Readers differ considerably in their speed of self-paced reading. One factor known to influence fixation durations in reading is the preprocessing of words in parafoveal vision. Here we investigated whether individual differences in reading speed or the amount of information extracted from upcoming words (the preview benefit) can be explained by basic differences in extrafoveal vision-i.e., the ability to recognize peripheral letters with or without the presence of flanking letters. Forty participants were given an adaptive test to determine their eccentricity thresholds for the identification of letters presented either in isolation (extrafoveal acuity) or flanked by other letters (crowded letter recognition). In a separate eye-tracking experiment, the same participants read lists of words from left to right, while the preview of the upcoming words was manipulated with the gaze-contingent moving window technique. Relationships between dependent measures were analyzed on the observational level and with linear mixed models. We obtained highly reliable estimates both for extrafoveal letter identification (acuity and crowding) and measures of reading speed (overall reading speed, size of preview benefit). Reading speed was higher in participants with larger uncrowded windows. However, the strength of this relationship was moderate and it was only observed if other sources of variance in reading speed (e.g., the occurrence of regressive saccades) were eliminated. Moreover, the size of the preview benefit-an important factor in normal reading-was larger in participants with better extrafoveal acuity. Together, these results indicate a significant albeit moderate contribution of extrafoveal vision to individual differences in reading speed.}, language = {en} } @article{NicenboimVasishthGatteietal.2015, author = {Nicenboim, Bruno and Vasishth, Shravan and Gattei, Carolina and Sigman, Mariano and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Working memory differences in long-distance dependency resolution}, series = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {6}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation}, address = {Lausanne}, issn = {1664-1078}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00312}, pages = {16}, year = {2015}, abstract = {There is a wealth of evidence showing that increasing the distance between an argument and its head leads to more processing effort, namely, locality effects: these are usually associated with constraints in working memory (DLT: Gibson, 2000: activation-based model: Lewis and Vasishth, 2005). In SOV languages, however, the opposite effect has been found: antilocality (see discussion in Levy et al., 2013). Antilocality effects can be explained by the expectation based approach as proposed by Levy (2008) or by the activation-based model of sentence processing as proposed by Lewis and Vasishth (2005). We report an eye-tracking and a self-paced reading study with sentences in Spanish together with measures of individual differences to examine the distinction between expectation- and memory based accounts, and within memory-based accounts the further distinction between DLT and the activation-based model. The experiments show that (i) antilocality effects as predicted by the expectation account appear only for high-capacity readers; (ii) increasing dependency length by interposing material that modifies the head of the dependency (the verb) produces stronger facilitation than increasing dependency length with material that does not modify the head; this is in agreement with the activation-based model but not with the expectation account; and (iii) a possible outcome of memory load on low-capacity readers is the increase in regressive saccades (locality effects as predicted by memory-based accounts) or, surprisingly, a speedup in the self-paced reading task; the latter consistent with good-enough parsing (Ferreira et al., 2002). In sum, the study suggests that individual differences in working memory capacity play a role in dependency resolution, and that some of the aspects of dependency resolution can be best explained with the activation-based model together with a prediction component.}, language = {en} } @article{MatuschekKlieglHolschneider2015, author = {Matuschek, Hannes and Kliegl, Reinhold and Holschneider, Matthias}, title = {Smoothing Spline ANOVA Decomposition of Arbitrary Splines: An Application to Eye Movements in Reading}, series = {PLoS one}, volume = {10}, journal = {PLoS one}, number = {3}, publisher = {PLoS}, address = {San Fransisco}, issn = {1932-6203}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0119165}, pages = {15}, year = {2015}, abstract = {The Smoothing Spline ANOVA (SS-ANOVA) requires a specialized construction of basis and penalty terms in order to incorporate prior knowledge about the data to be fitted. Typically, one resorts to the most general approach using tensor product splines. This implies severe constraints on the correlation structure, i.e. the assumption of isotropy of smoothness can not be incorporated in general. This may increase the variance of the spline fit, especially if only a relatively small set of observations are given. In this article, we propose an alternative method that allows to incorporate prior knowledge without the need to construct specialized bases and penalties, allowing the researcher to choose the spline basis and penalty according to the prior knowledge of the observations rather than choosing them according to the analysis to be done. The two approaches are compared with an artificial example and with analyses of fixation durations during reading.}, language = {en} } @article{HaendlerKlieglAdani2015, author = {Haendler, Yair and Kliegl, Reinhold and Adani, Flavia}, title = {Discourse accessibility constraints in children's processing of object relative clauses}, series = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {6}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation}, address = {Lausanne}, issn = {1664-1078}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00360}, pages = {17}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Children's poor performance on object relative clauses has been explained in terms of intervention locality. This approach predicts that object relatives with a full DP head and an embedded pronominal subject are easier than object relatives in which both the head noun and the embedded subject are full DPs. This prediction is shared by other accounts formulated to explain processing mechanisms. We conducted a visual-world study designed to test the off-line comprehension and on-line processing of object relatives in German-speaking 5-year-olds. Children were tested on three types of object relatives, all having a full DP head noun and differing with respect to the type of nominal phrase that appeared in the embedded subject position: another full DP, a 1st- or a 3rd-person pronoun. Grammatical skills and memory capacity were also assessed in order to see whether and how they affect children's performance. Most accurately processed were object relatives with 1st-person pronoun, independently of children's language and memory skills. Performance on object relatives with two full DPs was overall more accurate than on object relatives with 3rd-person pronoun. In the former condition, children with stronger grammatical skills accurately processed the structure and their memory abilities determined how fast they were; in the latter condition, children only processed accurately the structure if they were strong both in their grammatical skills and in their memory capacity. The results are discussed in the light of accounts that predict different pronoun effects like the ones we find, which depend on the referential properties of the pronouns. We then discuss which role language and memory abilities might have in processing object relatives with various embedded nominal phrases.}, language = {en} } @article{vonderMalsburgKlieglVasishth2015, author = {von der Malsburg, Titus Raban and Kliegl, Reinhold and Vasishth, Shravan}, title = {Determinants of Scanpath Regularity in Reading}, series = {Cognitive science : a multidisciplinary journal of anthropology, artificial intelligence, education, linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology ; journal of the Cognitive Science Society}, volume = {39}, journal = {Cognitive science : a multidisciplinary journal of anthropology, artificial intelligence, education, linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology ; journal of the Cognitive Science Society}, number = {7}, publisher = {Wiley-Blackwell}, address = {Hoboken}, issn = {0364-0213}, doi = {10.1111/cogs.12208}, pages = {1675 -- 1703}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Scanpaths have played an important role in classic research on reading behavior. Nevertheless, they have largely been neglected in later research perhaps due to a lack of suitable analytical tools. Recently, von der Malsburg and Vasishth (2011) proposed a new measure for quantifying differences between scanpaths and demonstrated that this measure can recover effects that were missed with the traditional eyetracking measures. However, the sentences used in that study were difficult to process and scanpath effects accordingly strong. The purpose of the present study was to test the validity, sensitivity, and scope of applicability of the scanpath measure, using simple sentences that are typically read from left to right. We derived predictions for the regularity of scanpaths from the literature on oculomotor control, sentence processing, and cognitive aging and tested these predictions using the scanpath measure and a large database of eye movements. All predictions were confirmed: Sentences with short words and syntactically more difficult sentences elicited more irregular scanpaths. Also, older readers produced more irregular scanpaths than younger readers. In addition, we found an effect that was not reported earlier: Syntax had a smaller influence on the eye movements of older readers than on those of young readers. We discuss this interaction of syntactic parsing cost with age in terms of shifts in processing strategies and a decline of executive control as readers age. Overall, our results demonstrate the validity and sensitivity of the scanpath measure and thus establish it as a productive and versatile tool for reading research.}, language = {en} } @article{LaubrockKliegl2015, author = {Laubrock, Jochen and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {The eye-voice span during reading aloud}, series = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {6}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation}, address = {Lausanne}, issn = {1664-1078}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01437}, pages = {19}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Although eye movements during reading are modulated by cognitive processing demands, they also reflect visual sampling of the input, and possibly preparation of output for speech or the inner voice. By simultaneously recording eye movements and the voice during reading aloud, we obtained an output measure that constrains the length of time spent on cognitive processing. Here we investigate the dynamics of the eye-voice span (EVS), the distance between eye and voice. We show that the EVS is regulated immediately during fixation of a word by either increasing fixation duration or programming a regressive eye movement against the reading direction. EVS size at the beginning of a fixation was positively correlated with the likelihood of regressions and refixations. Regression probability was further increased if the EVS was still large at the end of a fixation: if adjustment of fixation duration did not sufficiently reduce the EVS during a fixation, then a regression rather than a refixation followed with high probability. We further show that the EVS can help understand cognitive influences on fixation duration during reading: in mixed model analyses, the EVS was a stronger predictor of fixation durations than either word frequency or word length. The EVS modulated the influence of several other predictors on single fixation durations (SFDs). For example, word-N frequency effects were larger with a large EVS, especially when word N-1 frequency was low. Finally, a comparison of SFDs during oral and silent reading showed that reading is governed by similar principles in both reading modes, although EVS maintenance and articulatory processing also cause some differences. In summary, the EVS is regulated by adjusting fixation duration and/or by programming a regressive eye movement when the EVS gets too large. Overall, the EVS appears to be directly related to updating of the working memory buffer during reading.}, language = {en} } @article{SchroederWuerznerHeisteretal.2015, author = {Schroeder, Sascha and W{\"u}rzner, Kay-Michael and Heister, Julian and Geyken, Alexander and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {childLex: a lexical database of German read by children}, series = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, volume = {47}, journal = {Behavior research methods : a journal of the Psychonomic Society}, number = {4}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {1554-351X}, doi = {10.3758/s13428-014-0528-1}, pages = {1085 -- 1094}, year = {2015}, abstract = {This article introduces childLex, an online database of German read by children. childLex is based on a corpus of children's books and comprises 10 million words that were syntactically annotated and lemmatized. childLex reports linguistic norms for lexical, superlexical, and sublexical variables in three different age groups: 6-8 (grades 1-2), 9-10 (grades 3-4), and 11-12 years (grades 5-6). Here, we describe how childLex was collected and analyzed. In addition, we provide information about the distributions of word frequency, word length, and orthographic neighborhood size, as well as their intercorrelations. Finally, we explain how childLex can be accessed using a Web interface.}, language = {en} } @article{HohensteinKliegl2014, author = {Hohenstein, Sven and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Semantic preview benefit during reading}, series = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, volume = {40}, journal = {Journal of experimental psychology : Learning, memory, and cognition}, number = {1}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0278-7393}, doi = {10.1037/a0033670}, pages = {166 -- 190}, year = {2014}, abstract = {Word features in parafoveal vision influence eye movements during reading. The question of whether readers extract semantic information from parafoveal words was studied in 3 experiments by using a gaze-contingent display change technique. Subjects read German sentences containing 1 of several preview words that were replaced by a target word during the saccade to the preview (boundary paradigm). In the 1st experiment the preview word was semantically related or unrelated to the target. Fixation durations on the target were shorter for semantically related than unrelated previews, consistent with a semantic preview benefit. In the 2nd experiment, half the sentences were presented following the rules of German spelling (i.e., previews and targets were printed with an initial capital letter), and the other half were presented completely in lowercase. A semantic preview benefit was obtained under both conditions. In the 3rd experiment, we introduced 2 further preview conditions, an identical word and a pronounceable nonword, while also manipulating the text contrast. Whereas the contrast had negligible effects, fixation durations on the target were reliably different for all 4 types of preview. Semantic preview benefits were greater for pretarget fixations closer to the boundary (large preview space) and, although not as consistently, for long pretarget fixation durations (long preview time). The results constrain theoretical proposals about eye movement control in reading.}, language = {en} } @article{FernandezShalomKliegletal.2014, author = {Fernandez, Gerardo and Shalom, Diego E. and Kliegl, Reinhold and Sigman, Mariano}, title = {Eye movements during reading proverbs and regular sentences: the incoming word predictability effect}, series = {Language, cognition and neuroscience}, volume = {29}, journal = {Language, cognition and neuroscience}, number = {3}, publisher = {Routledge, Taylor \& Francis Group}, address = {Abingdon}, issn = {2327-3798}, doi = {10.1080/01690965.2012.760745}, pages = {260 -- 273}, year = {2014}, language = {en} } @article{RisseHohensteinKliegletal.2014, author = {Risse, Sarah and Hohenstein, Sven and Kliegl, Reinhold and Engbert, Ralf}, title = {A theoretical analysis of the perceptual span based on SWIFT simulations of the n+2 boundary paradigm}, series = {Visual cognition}, volume = {22}, journal = {Visual cognition}, number = {3-4}, publisher = {Routledge, Taylor \& Francis Group}, address = {Abingdon}, issn = {1350-6285}, doi = {10.1080/13506285.2014.881444}, pages = {283 -- 308}, year = {2014}, abstract = {Eye-movement experiments suggest that the perceptual span during reading is larger than the fixated word, asymmetric around the fixation position, and shrinks in size contingent on the foveal processing load. We used the SWIFT model of eye-movement control during reading to test these hypotheses and their implications under the assumption of graded parallel processing of all words inside the perceptual span. Specifically, we simulated reading in the boundary paradigm and analysed the effects of denying the model to have valid preview of a parafoveal word n + 2 two words to the right of fixation. Optimizing the model parameters for the valid preview condition only, we obtained span parameters with remarkably realistic estimates conforming to the empirical findings on the size of the perceptual span. More importantly, the SWIFT model generated parafoveal processing up to word n + 2 without fitting the model to such preview effects. Our results suggest that asymmetry and dynamic modulation are plausible properties of the perceptual span in a parallel word-processing model such as SWIFT. Moreover, they seem to guide the flexible distribution of processing resources during reading between foveal and parafoveal words.}, language = {en} } @article{PanYanLaubrocketal.2014, author = {Pan, Jinger and Yan, Ming and Laubrock, Jochen and Shu, Hua and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Saccade-target selection of dyslexic children when reading Chinese}, series = {Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision.}, volume = {97}, journal = {Vision research : an international journal for functional aspects of vision.}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Oxford}, issn = {0042-6989}, doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2014.01.014}, pages = {24 -- 30}, year = {2014}, abstract = {This study investigates the eye movements of dyslexic children and their age-matched controls when reading Chinese. Dyslexic children exhibited more and longer fixations than age-matched control children, and an increase of word length resulted in a greater increase in the number of fixations and gaze durations for the dyslexic than for the control readers. The report focuses on the finding that there was a significant difference between the two groups in the fixation landing position as a function of word length in single-fixation cases, while there was no such difference in the initial fixation of multi-fixation cases. We also found that both groups had longer incoming saccade amplitudes while the launch sites were closer to the word in single fixation cases than in multi-fixation cases. Our results suggest that dyslexic children's inefficient lexical processing, in combination with the absence of orthographic word boundaries in Chinese, leads them to select saccade targets at the beginning of words conservatively. These findings provide further evidence for parafoveal word segmentation during reading of Chinese sentences.}, language = {en} } @article{RisseKliegl2014, author = {Risse, Sarah and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Dissociating preview validity and preview difficulty in parafoveal processing of word n+1 during reading}, series = {Journal of experimental psychology : Human perception and performance}, volume = {40}, journal = {Journal of experimental psychology : Human perception and performance}, number = {2}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0096-1523}, doi = {10.1037/a0034997}, pages = {653 -- 668}, year = {2014}, abstract = {Many studies have shown that previewing the next word n + 1 during reading leads to substantial processing benefit (e.g., shorter word viewing times) when this word is eventually fixated. However, evidence of such preprocessing in fixations on the preceding word n when in fact the information about the preview is acquired is far less consistent. A recent study suggested that such effects may be delayed into fixations on the next word n + 1 (Risse \& Kliegl, 2012). To investigate the time course of parafoveal information-acquisition on the control of eye movements during reading, we conducted 2 gaze-contingent display-change experiments and orthogonally manipulated the processing difficulty (i.e., word frequency) of an n + 1 preview word and its validity relative to the target word. Preview difficulty did not affect fixation durations on the pretarget word n but on the target word n + 1. In fact, the delayed preview-difficulty effect was almost of the same size as the preview benefit associated with the n + 1 preview validity. Based on additional results from quantile-regression analyses on the time course of the 2 preview effects, we discuss consequences as to the integration of foveal and parafoveal information and potential implications for computational models of eye guidance in reading.}, language = {en} } @article{JuengerKlieglOberauer2014, author = {J{\"u}nger, Elisabeth and Kliegl, Reinhold and Oberauer, Klaus}, title = {No evidence for feature overwriting in visual working memory}, series = {Memory}, volume = {22}, journal = {Memory}, number = {4}, publisher = {Routledge, Taylor \& Francis Group}, address = {Abingdon}, issn = {0965-8211}, pages = {374 -- 389}, year = {2014}, language = {en} } @article{HofmannDambacherJacobsetal.2014, author = {Hofmann, Markus J. and Dambacher, Michael and Jacobs, Arthur M. and Kliegl, Reinhold and Radach, Ralph and Kuchinke, Lars and Plichta, Michael M. and Fallgatter, Andreas J. and Herrmann, Martin J.}, title = {Occipital and orbitofrontal hemodynamics during naturally paced reading: An fNIRS study}, series = {NeuroImage : a journal of brain function}, volume = {94}, journal = {NeuroImage : a journal of brain function}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {San Diego}, issn = {1053-8119}, doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.03.014}, pages = {193 -- 202}, year = {2014}, abstract = {Humans typically read at incredibly fast rates, because they predict likely occurring words from a given context. Here, we used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to track the ultra-rapid hemodynamic responses of words presented every 280 ms in a naturally paced sentence context. We found a lower occipital deoxygenation to unpredictable than to predictable words. The greater hemodynamic responses to unexpected words suggest that the visual features of expected words have been pre-activated previous to stimulus presentation. Second, we tested opposing theoretical proposals about the role of the medial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC): Either OFC may respond to the breach of expectation; or OFC is activated when the present stimulus matches the prediction. A significant interaction between word frequency and predictability indicated OFC responses to breaches of expectation for low- but not for high-frequency words: OFC is sensitive to both, bottom-up processing as mediated by word frequency, as well as top-down predictions. Particularly, when a rare word is unpredictable, OFC becomes active. Finally, we discuss how a high temporal resolution can help future studies to disentangle the hemodynamic responses of single trials in such an ultra-rapid event succession as naturally paced reading. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.}, language = {en} } @article{YanZhouShuetal.2014, author = {Yan, Ming and Zhou, Wei and Shu, Hua and Yusupu, Rizwangul and Miao, Dongxia and Kruegel, Andre and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language}, series = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, volume = {132}, journal = {Cognition : international journal of cognitive science}, number = {2}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Amsterdam}, issn = {0010-0277}, doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.008}, pages = {181 -- 215}, year = {2014}, abstract = {It is generally accepted that low-level features (e.g., inter-word spaces) are responsible for saccade-target selection in eye-movement control during reading. In two experiments using Uighur script known for its rich suffixes, we demonstrate that, in addition to word length and launch site, the number of suffixes influences initial landing positions. We also demonstrate an influence of word frequency. These results are difficult to explain purely by low-level guidance of eye movements and indicate that due to properties specific to Uighur script low-level visual information and high-level information such as morphological structure of parafoveal words jointly influence saccade programming. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.}, language = {en} } @article{HeisterWuerznerBubenzeretal.2011, author = {Heister, Julian and W{\"u}rzner, Kay-Michael and Bubenzer, Johannes and Pohl, Edmund and Hanneforth, Thomas and Geyken, Alexander and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {dlexDB - A lexical database for the psychological and linguistic research}, series = {Psychologische Rundschau : offizielles Organ der Deutschen Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Psychologie}, volume = {62}, journal = {Psychologische Rundschau : offizielles Organ der Deutschen Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Psychologie}, number = {1}, publisher = {Hogrefe}, address = {G{\"o}ttingen}, issn = {0033-3042}, doi = {10.1026/0033-3042/a000029}, pages = {10 -- 20}, year = {2011}, abstract = {The lexical database dlexDB supplies in form of an online database frequency-based norms of numerous process-related word properties for psychological and linguistic research. These values include well known variables such as printed frequency of word form and lemma as documented also in CELEX (Baayen, Piepenbrock und Gulikers, 1995). In addition, we compute new values like frequencies based on syllables, and morphemes as well as frequencies of character chains, and multiple word combinations. The statistics are based on the Kernkorpus des Digitalen Wrterbuchs der deutschen Sprache (DWDS) with over 100 million running words. We illustrate the validity of these norms with new results about fixation durations in sentence reading.}, language = {de} } @article{BostonHaleVasishthetal.2011, author = {Boston, Marisa Ferrara and Hale, John T. and Vasishth, Shravan and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Parallel processing and sentence comprehension difficulty}, series = {Language and cognitive processes}, volume = {26}, journal = {Language and cognitive processes}, number = {3}, publisher = {Wiley}, address = {Hove}, issn = {0169-0965}, doi = {10.1080/01690965.2010.492228}, pages = {301 -- 349}, year = {2011}, abstract = {Eye fixation durations during normal reading correlate with processing difficulty, but the specific cognitive mechanisms reflected in these measures are not well understood. This study finds support in German readers' eye fixations for two distinct difficulty metrics: surprisal, which reflects the change in probabilities across syntactic analyses as new words are integrated; and retrieval, which quantifies comprehension difficulty in terms of working memory constraints. We examine the predictions of both metrics using a family of dependency parsers indexed by an upper limit on the number of candidate syntactic analyses they retain at successive words. Surprisal models all fixation measures and regression probability. By contrast, retrieval does not model any measure in serial processing. As more candidate analyses are considered in parallel at each word, retrieval can account for the same measures as surprisal. This pattern suggests an important role for ranked parallelism in theories of sentence comprehension.}, language = {en} } @article{KlieglWeiDambacheretal.2011, author = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Wei, Ping and Dambacher, Michael and Yan, Ming and Zhou, Xiaolin}, title = {Experimental effects and individual differences in linear mixed models estimating the relationship between spatial, object, and attraction effects in visual attention}, series = {Frontiers in psychology}, volume = {2}, journal = {Frontiers in psychology}, publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation}, address = {Lausanne}, issn = {1664-1078}, doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00238}, pages = {12}, year = {2011}, abstract = {Linear mixed models (LMMs) provide a still underused methodological perspective on combining experimental and individual-differences research. Here we illustrate this approach with two-rectangle cueing in visual attention (Egly et al., 1994). We replicated previous experimental cue-validity effects relating to a spatial shift of attention within an object (spatial effect), to attention switch between objects (object effect), and to the attraction of attention toward the display centroid (attraction effect), also taking into account the design-inherent imbalance of valid and other trials. We simultaneously estimated variance/covariance components of subject-related random effects for these spatial, object, and attraction effects in addition to their mean reaction times (RTs). The spatial effect showed a strong positive correlation with mean RT and a strong negative correlation with the attraction effect. The analysis of individual differences suggests that slow subjects engage attention more strongly at the cued location than fast subjects. We compare this joint LMM analysis of experimental effects and associated subject-related variances and correlations with two frequently used alternative statistical procedures.}, language = {en} } @article{ShuZhouYanetal.2011, author = {Shu, Hua and Zhou, Wei and Yan, Ming and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Font size modulates saccade-target selection in Chinese reading}, series = {Attention, perception, \& psychophysics : AP\&P ; a journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc.}, volume = {73}, journal = {Attention, perception, \& psychophysics : AP\&P ; a journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc.}, number = {2}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {New York}, issn = {1943-3921}, doi = {10.3758/s13414-010-0029-y}, pages = {482 -- 490}, year = {2011}, abstract = {In alphabetic writing systems, saccade amplitude (a close correlate of reading speed) is independent of font size, presumably because an increase in the angular size of letters is compensated for by a decrease of visual acuity with eccentricity. We propose that this invariance may (also) be due to the presence of spaces between words, guiding the eyes across a large range of font sizes. Here, we test whether saccade amplitude is also invariant against manipulations of font size during reading Chinese, a character-based writing system without spaces as explicit word boundaries for saccade-target selection. In contrast to word-spaced alphabetic writing systems, saccade amplitude decreased significantly with increased font size, leading to an increase in the number of fixations at the beginning of words and in the number of refixations. These results are consistent with a model which assumes that word beginning (rather than word center) is the default saccade target if the length of the parafoveal word is not available.}, language = {en} } @article{KlieglBates2011, author = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Bates, Douglas}, title = {International collaboration in psychology is on the rise}, series = {Scientometrics : an international journal for all quantitative aspects of the science of science, communication in science and science policy}, volume = {87}, journal = {Scientometrics : an international journal for all quantitative aspects of the science of science, communication in science and science policy}, number = {1}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {Dordrecht}, issn = {0138-9130}, doi = {10.1007/s11192-010-0299-0}, pages = {149 -- 158}, year = {2011}, abstract = {There has been a substantial increase in the percentage for publications with co-authors located in departments from different countries in 12 major journals of psychology. The results are evidence for a remarkable internationalization of psychological research, starting in the mid 1970s and increasing in rate at the beginning of the 1990s. This growth occurs against a constant number of articles with authors from the same country; it is not due to a concomitant increase in the number of co-authors per article. Thus, international collaboration in psychology is obviously on the rise.}, language = {en} } @article{RisseKliegl2011, author = {Risse, Sarah and Kliegl, Reinhold}, title = {Adult age differences in the perceptual span during reading}, series = {Psychology and aging}, volume = {26}, journal = {Psychology and aging}, number = {2}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, address = {Washington}, issn = {0882-7974}, doi = {10.1037/a0021616}, pages = {451 -- 460}, year = {2011}, abstract = {Following up on research suggesting an age-related reduction in the rightward extent of the perceptual span during reading (Rayner, Castelhano, \& Yang, 2009), we compared old and young adults in an N + 2-boundary paradigm in which a nonword preview of word N + 2 or word N + 2 itself is replaced by the target word once the eyes cross an invisible boundary located after word N. The intermediate word N + I was always three letters long. Gaze durations on word N + 2 were significantly shorter for identical than nonword N + 2 preview both for young and for old adults, with no significant difference in this preview benefit. Young adults, however, did modulate their gaze duration on word N more strongly than old adults in response to the difficulty of the parafoveal word N + I. Taken together, the results suggest a dissociation of preview benefit and parafoveal-on-foveal effect. Results are discussed in terms of age-related decline in resilience towards distributed processing while simultaneously preserving the ability to integrate parafoveal information into foveal processing. As such, the present results relate to proposals of regulatory compensation strategies older adults use to secure an overall reading speed very similar to that of young adults.}, language = {en} }