@article{KistnerBurnsVollmeyeretal.2016,
  author    = {Kistner, Saskia and Burns, Bruce D. and Vollmeyer, Regina and Kortenkamp, Ulrich},
  title     = {The importance of understanding: Model space moderates goal specificity effects},
  series = {The quarterly journal of experimental psychology},
  volume    = {69},
  journal   = {The quarterly journal of experimental psychology},
  publisher = {Optical Society of America},
  address   = {Abingdon},
  issn      = {1747-0218},
  doi       = {10.1080/17470218.2015.1076865},
  pages     = {1179 -- 1196},
  year      = {2016},
  abstract  = {The three-space theory of problem solving predicts that the quality of a learner's model and the goal specificity of a task interact on knowledge acquisition. In Experiment 1 participants used a computer simulation of a lever system to learn about torques. They either had to test hypotheses (nonspecific goal), or to produce given values for variables (specific goal). In the good- but not in the poor-model condition they saw torque depicted as an area. Results revealed the predicted interaction. A nonspecific goal only resulted in better learning when a good model of torques was provided. In Experiment 2 participants learned to manipulate the inputs of a system to control its outputs. A nonspecific goal to explore the system helped performance when compared to a specific goal to reach certain values when participants were given a good model, but not when given a poor model that suggested the wrong hypothesis space. Our findings support the three-space theory. They emphasize the importance of understanding for problem solving and stress the need to study underlying processes.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{Ragonis2013,
  author    = {Ragonis, Noa},
  title     = {Problem-solving strategies must be taught implicitly},
  series = {Commentarii informaticae didacticae : (CID)},
  journal   = {Commentarii informaticae didacticae : (CID)},
  number    = {6},
  publisher = {Universit{\"a}tsverlag Potsdam},
  address   = {Potsdam},
  issn      = {1868-0844},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-64645},
  pages     = {155 -- 157},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Problem solving is one of the central activities performed by computer scientists as well as by computer science learners. Whereas the teaching of algorithms and programming languages is usually well structured within a curriculum, the development of learners' problem-solving skills is largely implicit and less structured. Students at all levels often face difficulties in problem analysis and solution construction. The basic assumption of the workshop is that without some formal instruction on effective strategies, even the most inventive learner may resort to unproductive trial-and-error problemsolving processes. Hence, it is important to teach problem-solving strategies and to guide teachers on how to teach their pupils this cognitive tool. Computer science educators should be aware of the difficulties and acquire appropriate pedagogical tools to help their learners gain and experience problem-solving skills.},
  language  = {en}
}