@article{Laudenbach2023,
  author    = {Laudenbach, Beno{\^i}t},
  title     = {Sophocle sur Netflix},
  series = {thersites 16},
  volume    = {2023},
  journal   = {thersites 16},
  number    = {16},
  editor    = {Amb{\"u}hl, Annemarie and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol16.222},
  pages     = {83 -- 127},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {The paper focuses on two recent occurrences of a Sophoclean drama on screen, Electra in the romantical movie Marriage Story, and Philoctetes in an episode of the mainstream medical series New Amsterdam, both productions currently available on the popular streaming service Netflix. The case studies explore the mechanisms of the use of these dramas and their significance in both productions, showing that they are partly used for their "classical" authority, are deeply integrated within the scenarios, and help to design the narratives, the characters and their (social and personal) relationships.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{D'Aprile2022,
  author    = {D'Aprile, Iwan-Michelangelo},
  title     = {{\´E}ducation publique et formation autodidacte},
  series = {Lumi{\`e}res},
  volume    = {1},
  journal   = {Lumi{\`e}res},
  number    = {39},
  publisher = {CIBEL},
  address   = {Pessac},
  issn      = {1762-4630},
  doi       = {10.3917/lumi.039.0047},
  pages     = {47 -- 61},
  year      = {2022},
  abstract  = {Cet article explore les d{\´e}bats sur la formation autodidacte dans le contexte d'une constellation franco-allemande autour de 1800. Il met en {\´e}vidence les interf{\´e}rences f{\´e}condes qui ont exist{\´e} entre les Lumi{\`e}res fran{\c{c}}aises, notamment par l'interm{\´e}diaire de Mirabeau, et l'Aufkl{\"a}rung allemande, en particulier les cercles berlinois autour de la Mittwochsgesellschaft et Wilhelm von Humboldt. Il analyse par ailleurs la dimension politique de l'autodidaxie {\`a} la veille de la R{\´e}volution fran{\c{c}}aise.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Renault2021,
  author    = {Renault, Manon},
  title     = {Antiquit{\´e}s et pop cultures dans la haute couture et le pr{\^e}t-{\`a}-porter des ann{\´e}es 2010},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.149},
  pages     = {125 -- 140},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {From the fluid dresses woven from precious materials evoking the iconic statues of Antiquity to the revival of Spartan shoes, two emblematic fashion trends will help us study the place of Greek Antiquity in contemporary women's fashion collections. Ordinary as well as extraordinary, what do these reminiscences tell? Can they permit to understand the boundaries that structure and govern the fashion's worlds? Numerous and diverse, the differences and the similarities of the ways in which classical references are used allow us to study the relations of power in which the specificities of haute couture and ready-to-wear are defined. The values, the entry criteria, the operating hierarchies as well as the very acceptance of the word "fashion" are different from one environment to another. From the catwalks of big fashion houses on Avenue Montaigne such as Chanel to the youngest brands, the differentiated readings and uses of Antiquity raise the question of the symbolic value of classics in fashion.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@inproceedings{Haeseler2021,
  author    = {H{\"a}seler, Jens},
  title     = {Le Refuge en Prusse {\`a} la lumi{\`e}re des travaux de Myriam Yardeni},
  series = {Protestantisme, nation, identit{\´e}. Hommage {\`a} Myriam Yardeni (1932-2015)},
  booktitle = {Protestantisme, nation, identit{\´e}. Hommage {\`a} Myriam Yardeni (1932-2015)},
  publisher = {Soci{\´e}t{\´e} Fran{\c{c}}aise d'Etude du Seizi{\`e}me Si{\`e}cle},
  address   = {Paris},
  pages     = {1 -- 7},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Myriam Yardeni a consacr{\´e} des travaux {\`a} l'histoire de la R{\´e}forme, {\`a} la pens{\´e}e politique et {\`a} l'historiographie des Huguenots, aux changements d'attitude envers le peuple juif, {\`a} l'{\´E}glise du D{\´e}sert, mais aussi au Refuge en Allemagne et en particulier en Prusse. Sans pouvoir retracer ici toute cette partie de son itin{\´e}raire de recherche, ni m{\^e}me {\´e}tudier {\`a} fond ses contributions majeures {\`a} la recherche sur le Refuge en Prusse, ce texte ne veut qu'apporter un t{\´e}moignage sur la vitalit{\´e} et la productivit{\´e} de sa m{\´e}thode de recherche.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@misc{SauraZiegelmeyer2021,
  author    = {Saura-Ziegelmeyer, Arnaud},
  title     = {Review of Carine Giov{\´e}nal, V{\´e}ronique Krings, Alexandre Mass{\´e}, Matthieu Soler, Catherine Valenti : L'Antiquit{\´e} imagine. Les r{\´e}f{\´e}rences antiques dans les oeuvres de fiction (XXe - XXIe si{\`e}cles)},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol14.138},
  pages     = {200 -- 206},
  year      = {2021},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Scapin2021,
  author    = {Scapin, Mathieu},
  title     = {Les chefs d'œuvre de l'Art antique dans la bande dessin{\´e}e du XXIᵉ s. Usages et Background},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.128},
  pages     = {169 -- 199},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Whether you open a manga, a French-language comic strip or a North-American comic strip with Classic subject, it seems normal to the reader to encounter many representations of sculptures, paintings or object of daily life from this period throughout the story. These images are taken from catalogues notably available online. The artists also seem to have drawn their inspiration from museum publications or directly from the collections exhibited by these cultural institutions. This article will review the masterpieces used in comic strips and the reasons why they are chosen. Depending on the formats and cultures that stage them, these works do not constitute decorative elements of an ancient past but contribute to the narrative.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{SauraZiegelmeyer2021,
  author    = {Saura-Ziegelmeyer, Arnaud},
  title     = {Construire ses propres mod{\`e}les : le cas des bandes sonores post-Gladiator},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.150},
  pages     = {141 -- 168},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Ringing trumpets announcing the arrival of a Roman emperor, an oriental flowing and delicate harp reverberating inside the intimate palace of an Egyptian queen, a rude aulos singing in a bucolic Greek landscape: where are these familiar sound images coming from? Are these creations inspired by archaeological data or built after modern fantasy? The scarcity of ancient musical data necessitated, in fact, to reinvent the films' soundscape taking place in the Ancient world. It is therefore a question of seeing on which models a peplum's soundtrack is conceived and what it can reveal on our way of perceiving the ancient and contemporary world. Far from wanting to gauge the historicity of the sound backgrounds offered to the spectator of dark rooms, it is rather a question of seeing the imitation phenomena that can appear from the sound clich{\´e}s created by the peplum itself and of also deducing from them thought patterns which, contextualized, influence these compositions. This article will focus on post-2000 productions.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Costanzo2021,
  author    = {Costanzo, Daniela},
  title     = {Le destin des ic{\^o}nes : perception, symboles et images des Bronzes de Riace dans la culture contemporaine},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.153},
  pages     = {100 -- 124},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {Tr{\`e}s peu d'originaux nous permettent de conna{\^i}tre la statuaire grecque ancienne. Eu {\´e}gard {\`a} la grande production de statues en bronze, un nombre tr{\`e}s limit{\´e} d'oeuvres a {\´e}t{\´e} sauv{\´e} de la fureur du temps et des hommes. Le reste nous est connu de mani{\`e}re partielle et imparfaite par les copies romaines en marbre ou par des notes rapides d'auteurs anciens, qui mentionnent des artistes et des oeuvres dont le seul nom demeure. La d{\´e}couverte de statues en bronze de production grecque est donc un {\´e}v{\´e}nement exceptionnel d'un point de vue scientifique. Les « Bronzes de Riace » ont notamment eu, d{\`e}s leur d{\´e}couverte en 1972, une immense influence dans la culture populaire, que nous allons aborder dans cet article sous l'angle des Reception Studies, en essayant d'int{\´e}grer ces r{\´e}flexions au d{\´e}bat sur leur perception dans le monde contemporain, d{\´e}j{\`a} abord{\´e} par deux volumes sortis en 1986 et 2015 (Gli eroi venuti dal mare/Heroes from the sea et Sul buono e sul cattivo uso dei Bronzi di Riace1), en portant une attention particuli{\`e}re au Web et aux r{\´e}seaux sociaux. 1 Je remercie Maurizio Paoletti et Fabien Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin pour la relecture de cet article ; Domenico Benedetto D'Agostino pour m'avoir fait conna{\^i}tre, il y a quelques ann{\´e}es, le po{\`e}me de Felice Mastroianni d{\´e}di{\´e} au Bronzes de Riace ; l'Archivio du Mus{\´e}e Arch{\´e}ologique National de Reggio Calabria, Mike_art04, le collectif La Psicoscimmia et Emanuela Robustelli pour les images qu'ils ont partag{\´e}es.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Besnard2021,
  author    = {Besnard, Tiphaine Annabelle},
  title     = {La V{\´e}nus de Milo dans l'art contemporain (de 1980 {\`a} nos jours) : une ic{\^o}ne globalis{\´e}e},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.156},
  pages     = {84 -- 99},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {This paper aims to analyse the figure of the Venus of Milo in (extreme) contemporary art productions. The reception of this sculpture has already been studied in the past, but without considering the last ten years (2010 - 2020), during which artists like Yinka Shonibare, Fabio Viale, or Daniel Arsham decided to use the Venus for their new productions. The paper also explains how the Venus of Milo became a globalised icon and an inspiration for artists from all over the world.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Jouteur2021,
  author    = {Jouteur, Isabelle},
  title     = {Laocoon Relook{\´e}},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.136},
  pages     = {43 -- 70},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {This article focuses on the reception of the ancient statue of Laocoon in the arts and popular culture of the 21st century. It looks into why this icon has remained continuously present in the public's collective imagination and covers, in particular, the recapturing of this motif by four contemporary painters : Richard Wallace (2002), Ron Milewicz (2005), Gilles Chambon (2008), Kent Monkman (2008). The article examines as well the new meanings associated with its treatment and finally explores the way our contemporary world deals with the notion of monument and the concept of academicism.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Briand2021,
  author    = {Briand, Michel},
  title     = {Le Laocoon en ic{\^o}ne queer et camp},
  series = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  volume    = {2021},
  journal   = {thersites 13: Antiquipop - Chefs d'œuvres revisit{\´e}s},
  number    = {13},
  editor    = {Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin, Fabien and Carl{\`a}-Uhink, Filippo and Rollinger, Christian and Walde, Christine},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol13.133},
  pages     = {1 -- 42},
  year      = {2021},
  abstract  = {The Laoco{\"o}n group, a famous source of inspiration for modern artists and a crucial masterpiece for historians of art and philosophers, is also a popular figure in queer contemporary art and culture, both distorted and celebrated through camp performative devices. After remarks about 1. "queer gaze" and the complex relation of queer or LGBTQIA+ culture and politics to the dialectics of kitsch/camp and classical / contemporary / pop art, and 2. (not straight but) queer classics, using "anachronisme raisonn{\´e}" (Loraux") and "{\´e}cart" (Dupont), this article focuses on case studies from the 2010's: 1. The untold gay history of Vatican guided tour; the music video Falling, by the "queer cowboy" Drew Beckman. 2. Paintings by Richard Wallace (esp. Laoco{\"o}n); photographic series of Danil Golovkin (Modern Heroes : Photographing Bodybuilders in the Digital Age), 3. Julien Servy (Collages : Photo vs. Statues) ; the design firm modern8 (for the 2017 Utah Pride Festival). 4. The indigenous Canadian artist Kent Monkman, who, in paintings (The Academy), performances, installations, altogether stages and questions the violence of historical and cultural colonization and its impact on issues of gender and identity, and promotes dynamic interactions of aesthetics and politics, as well of pathos and camp.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@misc{Benedetti2020,
  author    = {Benedetti, Ginevra},
  title     = {Recension de Fabien Bi{\`e}vre-Perrin \& {\´E}lise Pampanay (dir.) Antiquipop. La r{\´e}f{\´e}rence {\`a} l'Antiquit{\´e} dans la culture populaire contemporaine},
  series = {PaRDeS : Zeitschrift der Vereinigung f{\"u}r J{\"u}dische Studien = Transformative Translations in Jewish History and Culture},
  volume    = {2020},
  journal   = {PaRDeS : Zeitschrift der Vereinigung f{\"u}r J{\"u}dische Studien = Transformative Translations in Jewish History and Culture},
  number    = {11},
  editor    = {Amb{\"u}hl, Annemarie},
  issn      = {2364-7612},
  doi       = {10.34679/thersites.vol11.121},
  pages     = {401 -- 410},
  year      = {2020},
  language  = {fr}
}
@phdthesis{LeBonhomme2015,
  author    = {Le Bonhomme, Fanny},
  title     = {Psychiatrie et soci{\´e}t{\´e} en R{\´e}publique D{\´e}mocratique Allemande},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-407164},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {480},
  year      = {2015},
  abstract  = {The patients of the Charité Psychiatry and Neurology clinic (East-Berlin, GDR) during the 1960s are at the center of this study. While taking into account the interpretation provided by the medical discourse, this research aims at reconstructing the experiences and the trajectories of these individuals by inscribing them in the context of the socialist society. Relying on patients' records - these records being the main source of this study - the goal of this research is to reach a better understanding of underlying tensions in the socialist society in relation to the political and ideological context. As these sources show, when they talk to the therapist, patients can speak according to rules which differ from the rules implemented in the socialist society. Because they may contain traces of speeches that would usually be silenced as a result of censorship or self-censorship, or of the unspeakable, shameful or delirious nature of this speech, the patients' records prove to be a valuable source for the historian. From marital tensions caused by ideological disagreements to the inner conflicts of an "ardent marxist", from the pain triggered by the exclusion from the party to the pain caused by the construction of the Berlin Wall, from the "reuniting delirium" to the delusions according to which the West appears as a threat, the individual and singular experiences of the patients allow to reconstruct, through a microhistorical approach, certain tensions inherent to the working of the socialist society.},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Schoeps1991,
  author    = {Schoeps, Julius H.},
  title     = {Les Juifs dans I'Allemagne d'apr{\`e}s-guerre},
  year      = {1991},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Schoeps1993,
  author    = {Schoeps, Julius H.},
  title     = {Informer, t{\´e}moigner et comm{\´e}morer : a propos du nouveau Mus{\´e}e Juif de la Ville de Vienne},
  year      = {1993},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Klessmann1993,
  author    = {Kleßmann, Christoph},
  title     = {L'opzione per l'occidente},
  year      = {1993},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Maissen1996,
  author    = {Maissen, Thomas},
  title     = {L'historien ethnographe : la d{\´e}couverte du peuple fran{\c{c}}ais dans l'historiographie italienne de la Renaissance},
  year      = {1996},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Maissen1996,
  author    = {Maissen, Thomas},
  title     = {Le "commynisme" italien : Louis XI, h{\´e}ros de la contre-r{\´e}forme},
  year      = {1996},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Kroener1998,
  author    = {Kroener, Bernhard R.},
  title     = {L' Etat moderne et la "soci{\´e}t{\´e} militaire" au XVIIIe si{\`e}cle},
  year      = {1998},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Schoeps1998,
  author    = {Schoeps, Julius H.},
  title     = {Ya-t-il une r{\´e}sistance juive? : Strat{\´e}gies d{\´e}fense contre Hitler at la terreur national- socialiste},
  year      = {1998},
  language  = {fr}
}
@article{Flitner1999,
  author    = {Flitner, Elisabeth},
  title     = {Adieu {\`a} l' {\´e}cole unique socialiste : transformations de l' {\´e}cole en Allemagne apr{\`e}s la r{\´e}unification},
  year      = {1999},
  language  = {fr}
}
@phdthesis{Denoyer2017,
  author    = {Denoyer, Aur{\´e}lie},
  title     = {L'exil comme patrie},
  publisher = {Press Universitaires},
  address   = {Rennes},
  isbn      = {978-2-7535-5196-1},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {287},
  year      = {2017},
  language  = {fr}
}
@phdthesis{NetchaevBakinski2014,
  author    = {Netchaev-Bakinski, Alexandre},
  title     = {Les voies/voix radicales en Angleterre, 1789-1848},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-75472},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {355},
  year      = {2014},
  abstract  = {What is a radical? Somebody who goes against mainstream opinions? An agitator who suggests transforming society at the risk of endangering its harmony? In the political context of the British Isles at the end of the eighteenth century, the word radical had a negative connotation. It referred to the Levellers and the English Civil War, it brought back a period of history which was felt as a traumatic experience. Its stigmas were still vivid in the mind of the political leaders of these times. The reign of Cromwell was certainly the main reason for the general aversion of any form of virulent contestation of the power, especially when it contained political claims. In the English political context, radicalism can be understood as the different campaigns for parliamentary reforms establishing universal suffrage. However, it became evident that not all those who were supporting such a reform originated from the same social class or shared the same ideals. As a matter of fact, the reformist associations and their leaders often disagreed with each other. Edward Royle and Hames Walvin claimed that radicalism could not be analyzed historically as a concept, because it was not a homogeneous movement, nor it had common leaders and a clear ideology. For them, radicalism was merely a loose concept, « a state of mind rather than a plan of action. » At the beginning of the nineteenth-century, the newspaper The Northern Star used the word radical in a positive way to designate a person or a group of people whose ideas were conform to those of the newspaper. However, an opponent of parliamentary reform will use the same word in a negative way, in this case the word radical will convey a notion of menace. From the very beginning, the term radical covered a large spectrum of ideas and conceptions. In fact, the plurality of what the word conveys is the main characteristic of what a radical is. As a consequence, because the radicals tended to differentiate themselves with their plurality and their differences rather than with common features, it seems impossible to define what radicalism (whose suffix in -ism implies that it designate a doctrine, an ideology) is. Nevertheless, today it is accepted by all historians. From the mid-twentieth century, we could say that it was taken from granted to consider radicalism as a movement that fitted with the democratic precepts (universal suffrage, freedom of speech) of our modern world. Let us first look at radicalism as a convenient way to designate the different popular movements appealing to universal suffrage during the time period 1792-1848. We could easily observe through the successions of men and associations, a long lasting radical state of mind: Cartwright, Horne Tooke, Thomas Hardy, Francis Burdett, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt, William Lovett, Bronterre O'Brien, Feargus O'Connor, The London Society for Constitutional information (SCI), The London Corresponding Society (LCS), The Hampden Clubs, The Chartists, etc. These organizations and people acknowledged having many things in common and being inspired by one another in carrying out their activities. These influences can be seen in the language and the political ideology that British historians name as "Constitutionalist", but also, in the political organization of extra-parliamentary societies. Most of the radicals were eager to redress injustices and, in practice, they were inspired by a plan of actions drawn on from the pamphlets of the True Whigs of the eighteenth-century. We contest the argument that the radicals lacked coherence and imagination or that they did not know how to put into practice their ambitions. In fact, their innovative forms of protest left a mark on history and found many successors in the twentieth century. Radicals' prevarications were the result of prohibitive legislation that regulated the life of associations and the refusal of the authorities to cooperate with them. As mentioned above, the term radical was greatly used and the contemporaries of the period starting from the French Revolution to Chartism never had to quarrel about the notions the word radical covered. However, this does not imply that all radicals were the same or that they belong to the same entity. Equally to Horne Tooke, the Reverend and ultra-Tory Stephens was considered as a radical, it went also with the shoemaker Thomas Hardy and the extravagant aristocrat Francis Burdett. Whether one belonged to the Aristocracy, the middle-class, the lower class or the Church, nothing could prevent him from being a radical. Surely, anybody could be a radical in its own way. Radicalism was wide enough to embrace everybody, from revolutionary reformers to paternalistic Tories. We were interested to clarify the meaning of the term radical because its inclusive nature was overlooked by historians. That's why the term radical figures in the original title of our dissertation Les voix/voies radicales (radical voices/ways to radicalism). In the French title, both words voix/voies are homonymous; the first one voix (voice) correspond to people, the second one voies (ways) refers to ideas. By this, we wanted to show that the word radical belongs to the sphere of ideas and common experience but also to the nature of human beings. Methodoloy The thesis stresses less on the question of class and its formation than on the circumstances that brought people to change their destiny and those of their fellows or to modernize the whole society. We challenged the work of E.P. Thompson, who in his famous book, The Making of the English Working Class, defined the radical movements in accordance with an idea of class. How a simple shoe-maker, Thomas Hardy, could become the center of attention during a trial where he was accused of being the mastermind of a modern revolution? What brought William Cobbett, an ultra-Tory, self-taught intellectual, to gradually espouse the cause of universal suffrage at a period where it was unpopular to do so? Why a whole population gathered to hear Henry Hunt, a gentleman farmer whose background did not destine him for becoming the champion of the people? It seemed that the easiest way to answer to these questions and to understand the nature of the popular movements consisted in studying the life of their leaders. We aimed at reconstructing the universe which surrounded the principal actors of the reform movements as if we were a privileged witness of theses times. This idea to associate the biographies of historical characters for a period of more than fifty years arouse when we realized that key events of the reform movements were echoing each other, such the trial of Thomas Hardy in 1794 and the massacre of Peterloo of 1819. The more we learned about the major events of radicalism and the life of their leaders, the more we were intrigued. Finally, one could ask himself if being a radical was not after all a question of character rather than one of class. The different popular movements in favour of a parliamentary reform were in fact far more inclusive and diversified from what historians traditionally let us to believe. For instance, once he manage to gather a sufficient number of members of the popular classes, Thomas Hardy projected to give the control of his association to an intellectual elite led by Horne Tooke. Moreover, supporters of the radical reforms followed leaders whose background was completely different as theirs. For example, O'Connor claimed royal descent from the ancient kings of Ireland. William Cobbett, owner of a popular newspaper was proud of his origins as a farmer. William Lovett, close to the liberals and a few members of parliament came from a very poor family of fishermen. We have thus put together the life of these five men, Thomas hardy, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt, William Lovett and Feargus O'Connor in order to compose a sort of a saga of the radicals. This association gives us a better idea of the characteristics of the different movements in which they participated, but also, throw light on the circumstances of their formation and their failures, on the particular atmosphere which prevailed at these times, on the men who influenced these epochs, and finally on the marks they had left. These men were at the heart of a whole network and in contact with other actors of peripheral movements. They gathered around themselves close and loyal fellows with whom they shared many struggles but also quarreled and had strong words. The original part of our approach is reflected in the choice to not consider studying the fluctuations of the radical movements in a linear fashion where the story follows a strict chronology. We decided to split up the main issue of the thesis through different topics. To do so, we simply have described the life of the people who inspired these movements. Each historical figure covers a chapter, and the general story follows a chronological progression. Sometimes we had to go back through time or discuss the same events in different chapters when the main protagonists lived in the same period of time. Radical movements were influenced by people of different backgrounds. What united them above all was their wish to obtain a normalization of the political world, to redress injustices and obtain parliamentary reform. We paid particular attention to the moments where the life of these men corresponded to an intense activity of the radical movement or to a transition of its ideas and organization. We were not so much interested in their feelings about secondary topics nor did we about their affective relations. Furthermore, we had little interest in their opinions on things which were not connected to our topic unless it helped us to have a better understanding of their personality. We have purposely reduced the description of our protagonists to their radical sphere. Of course we talked about their background and their intellectual development; people are prone to experience reversals of opinions, the case of Cobbett is the most striking one. The life of these personalities coincided with particular moments of the radical movement, such as the first popular political associations, the first open-air mass meetings, the first popular newspapers, etc. We wanted to emphasize the personalities of those who addressed speeches and who were present in the radical associations. One could argue that the inconvenience of focusing on a particular person presents a high risk of overlooking events and people who were not part of his world. However, it was essential to differ from an analysis or a chronicle which had prevailed in the studies of the radical movements, as we aimed at offering a point of view that completed the precedents works written on that topic. In order to do so, we have deliberately put the humane character of the radical movement at the center of our work and used the techniques of biography as a narrative thread. Conclusion The life of each historical figure that we have portrayed corresponded to a particular epoch of the radical movement. Comparing the speeches of the radical leaders over a long period of time, we noticed that the radical ideology evolved. The principles of the Rights of Men faded away and gave place to more concrete reasoning, such as the right to benefit from one's own labour. This transition is characterized by the Chartist period of Feargus O'Connor. This does not mean that collective memory and radical tradition ceased to play an important part. The popular classes were always appealed to Constitutional rhetoric and popular myths. Indeed, thanks to them they identified themselves and justified their claims to universal suffrage. We focused on the life of a few influent leaders of radicalism in order to understand its evolution and its nature. The description of their lives constituted our narrative thread and it enabled us to maintain consistency in our thesis. If the chapters are independent the one from the other, events and speeches are in correspondences. Sometimes we could believe that we were witnessing a repetition of facts and events as if history was repeating itself endlessly. However, like technical progress, the spirit of time, Zeitgeist, experiences changes and mutations. These features are fundamental elements to comprehend historical phenomena; the latter cannot be simplified to philosophical, sociological, or historical concept. History is a science which has this particularity that the physical reality of phenomena has a human dimension. As a consequence, it is essential not to lose touch with the human aspect of history when one pursues studies and intellectual activities on a historical phenomenon. We decided to take a route opposite to the one taken by many historians. We have first identified influential people from different epochs before entering into concepts analysis. Thanks to this compilation of radical leaders, a new and fresh look to the understanding of radicalism was possible. Of course, we were not the first one to have studied them, but we ordered them following a chronology, like Plutarch enjoyed juxtaposing Greeks and Romans historical figures. Thanks to this technique we wanted to highlight the features of the radical leaders' speeches, personalities and epochs, but also their differences. At last, we tried to draw the outlines and the heart of different radical movements in order to follow the ways that led to radicalism. We do not pretend to have offered an original and exclusive definition of radicalism, we mainly wanted to understand the nature of what defines somebody as a radical and explain the reasons why thousands of people decided to believe in this man. Moreover, we wanted to distance ourselves from the ideological debate of the Cold War which permeated also the interpretation of past events. Too often, the history of radicalism was either narrated with a form of revolutionary nostalgia or in order to praise the merits of liberalism. If the great mass meetings ends in the mid-nineteenth-century with the fall of Chartism, this practice spread out in the whole world in the twentieth-century. Incidentally, the Arab Spring of the beginning of the twenty-first-century demonstrated that a popular platform was the best way for the people to claim their rights and destabilize a political system which they found too authoritative. Through protest the people express an essential quality of revolt, which is an expression of emancipation from fear. From then on, a despotic regime loses this psychological terror which helped it to maintain itself into power. The balance of power between the government and its people would also take a new turn. The radicals won this psychological victory more than 150 years ago and yet universal suffrage was obtained only a century later. From the acceptance of the principles of liberties to their cultural practice, a long route has to be taken to change people's mind. It is a wearisome struggle for the most vulnerable people. In the light of western history, fundamental liberties must be constantly defended. Paradoxically, revolt is an essential and constitutive element of the maintenance of democracy.},
  language  = {fr}
}