@article{AustinBondueElsner2020,
  author    = {Austin, Gina and Bond{\"u}, Rebecca and Elsner, Birgit},
  title     = {Executive function, theory of mind, and conduct-problem symptoms in middle childhood},
  series = {Frontiers in psychology},
  volume    = {11},
  journal   = {Frontiers in psychology},
  publisher = {Frontiers Media},
  address   = {Lausanne},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00539},
  pages     = {12},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Studies show relations between executive function (EF), Theory of Mind (ToM), and conduct-problem (CP) symptoms. However, many studies have involved cross-sectional data, small clinical samples, pre-school children, and/or did not consider potential mediation effects. The present study examined the longitudinal relations between EF, ToM abilities, and CP symptoms in a population-based sample of 1,657 children between 6 and 11 years (T1: M = 8.3 years, T2: M = 9.1 years; 51.9\% girls). We assessed EF skills and ToM abilities via computerized tasks at first measurement (T1), CP symptoms were rated via parent questionnaires at T1 and approximately 1 year later (T2). Structural-equation models showed a negative relation between T1 EF and T2 CP symptoms even when controlling for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and other variables. This relation was fully mediated by T1 ToM abilities. The study shows how children's abilities to control their thoughts and behaviors and to understand others' mental states interact in the development of CP symptoms.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{CzapkaWotschackKlassertetal.2020,
  author    = {Czapka, Sophia and Wotschack, Christiane and Klassert, Annegret and Festman, Julia},
  title     = {A path to the bilingual advantage},
  series = {Bilingualism : language and cognition},
  volume    = {23},
  journal   = {Bilingualism : language and cognition},
  number    = {2},
  publisher = {Cambridge Univ. Press},
  address   = {Cambridge},
  issn      = {1366-7289},
  doi       = {10.1017/S1366728919000166},
  pages     = {344 -- 354},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Matching participants (as suggested by Hope, 2015) may be one promising option for research on a potential bilingual advantage in executive functions (EF). In this study we first compared performances in three EF-tasks of a naturally heterogeneous sample of monolingual (n = 69, age = 9.0 y) and multilingual children (n = 57, age = 9.3 y). Secondly, we meticulously matched participants pairwise to obtain two highly homogeneous groups to rerun our analysis and investigate a potential bilingual advantage. The initally disadvantaged multilinguals (regarding socioeconomic status and German lexicon size) performed worse in updating and response inhibition, but similarly in interference inhibition. This indicates that superior EF compensate for the detrimental effects of the background variables. After matching children pairwise on age, gender, intelligence, socioeconomic status and German lexicon size, performances became similar except for interference inhibition. Here, an advantage for multilinguals in the form of globally reduced reaction times emerged, indicating a bilingual executive processing advantage.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{CzapkaKlassertFestman2019,
  author    = {Czapka, Sophia and Klassert, Annegret and Festman, Julia},
  title     = {Executive functions and language},
  series = {Frontiers in psychology},
  volume    = {10},
  journal   = {Frontiers in psychology},
  publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation},
  address   = {Lausanne},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00097},
  pages     = {18},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {We aimed at unveiling the role of executive functions (EFs) and language-related skills in spelling for mono- versus multilingual primary school children. We focused on EF and language-related skills, in particular lexicon size and phonological awareness (PA), because these factors were found to predict spelling in studies predominantly conducted with monolinguals, and because multilingualism can modulate these factors. There is evidence for (a) a bilingual advantage in EF due to constant high cognitive demands through language control, (b) a smaller mental lexicon in German and (c) possibly better PA. Multilinguals in Germany show on average poorer German language proficiency, what can influence performance on language-based tasks negatively. Thus, we included two spelling tasks to tease apart spelling based on lexical knowledge (i.e., word spelling) from spelling based on non-lexical strategies (i.e., non-word spelling). Our sample consisted of heterogeneous third graders from Germany: 69 monolinguals (age: M = 108 months) and 57 multilinguals (age: M = 111 months). On less language-dependent tasks (e.g., non-word spelling, PA, intelligence, short-term memory (STM) and three EF tasks testing switching, inhibition, and working memory) performance of both groups did not differ significantly. However, multilinguals performed significantly more poorly on tasks measuring German lexicon size and word spelling than monolinguals. Regression analyses revealed that for multilinguals, inhibition was related to spelling, whereas switching was the only EF component to influence word spelling in monolinguals and non-word spelling performance in both groups. By adding lexicon size and other language-related factors to the regression models, the influence of switching was reduced to insignificant effects, but inhibition remained significant for multilinguals. Language-related skills best predicted spelling and both language groups shared those variables: PA for word spelling, and STM for non-word spelling. Additionally, multilinguals' word spelling performance was also predicted by their German lexicon size, and non-word spelling performance by PA. This study offers an in-depth look at spelling acquisition at a certain point of literacy development. Mono- and multilinguals have the predominant factors for spelling in common, but probably due to superior language knowledge, monolinguals were already able to make use of EF during spelling. For multilinguals, German lexicon size was more important for spelling than EF. For multilinguals' spelling these functions might come into play only at a later stage.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{FestmanSchwieter2019,
  author    = {Festman, Julia and Schwieter, John W.},
  title     = {Self-concepts in reading and spelling among mono- and multilingual Children},
  series = {Behavioral Sciences},
  volume    = {9},
  journal   = {Behavioral Sciences},
  number    = {4},
  publisher = {MDPI AG},
  address   = {Basel},
  issn      = {2076-328X},
  doi       = {10.3390/bs9040039},
  pages     = {16},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Cognitive representations and beliefs are what comprise an individual's self-concept. A positive self-concept is related to and influences academic achievement, and the relationship between a domain-specific self-concept and achievement in the same domain is positive and strong. However, insufficient attention has been paid to these issues among multilingual children. More importantly, since instruction strongly contributes to the development of metacognition and executive functions (EFs), and since the bilingual advantage hypothesis holds that the constant management of multiple languages entails benefits for EF, we bring together these important issues in the present study. We examine the relationship between domain-specific self-concepts and standardized assessment of reading and spelling competences against the background of potential differences in self-concept between monolingual and multilingual German children. While between-group comparisons revealed no significant differences for self-concept nor reading competency, monolinguals outperformed multilinguals in spelling. Correlations between domain-specific self-concepts and academic achievement in reading comprehension, reading fluency, and spelling were positive and significant for both groups. Regardless of language background, children's evaluations of their academic achievement (reading and spelling) were realistic. We argue, on a theoretical basis, that metacognition and EFs could facilitate a bilingual advantage and improve educational outcomes.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{CzapkaKlassertFestman2019,
  author    = {Czapka, Sophia and Klassert, Annegret and Festman, Julia},
  title     = {Executive Functions and Language},
  series = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume    = {10},
  journal   = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  publisher = {Frontiers Research Foundation},
  address   = {Lausanne},
  issn      = {1664-1078},
  doi       = {10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00097},
  pages     = {18},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {We aimed at unveiling the role of executive functions (EFs) and language-related skills in spelling for mono- versus multilingual primary school children. We focused on EF and language-related skills, in particular lexicon size and phonological awareness (PA), because these factors were found to predict spelling in studies predominantly conducted with monolinguals, and because multilingualism can modulate these factors. There is evidence for (a) a bilingual advantage in EF due to constant high cognitive demands through language control, (b) a smaller mental lexicon in German and (c) possibly better PA. Multilinguals in Germany show on average poorer German language proficiency, what can influence performance on language-based tasks negatively. Thus, we included two spelling tasks to tease apart spelling based on lexical knowledge (i.e., word spelling) from spelling based on non-lexical strategies (i.e., non-word spelling). Our sample consisted of heterogeneous third graders from Germany: 69 monolinguals (age: M = 108 months) and 57 multilinguals (age: M = 111 months). On less language-dependent tasks (e.g., non-word spelling, PA, intelligence, short-term memory (STM) and three EF tasks testing switching, inhibition, and working memory) performance of both groups did not differ significantly. However, multilinguals performed significantly more poorly on tasks measuring German lexicon size and word spelling than monolinguals. Regression analyses revealed that for multilinguals, inhibition was related to spelling, whereas switching was the only EF component to influence word spelling in monolinguals and non-word spelling performance in both groups. By adding lexicon size and other language-related factors to the regression models, the influence of switching was reduced to insignificant effects, but inhibition remained significant for multilinguals. Language-related skills best predicted spelling and both language groups shared those variables: PA for word spelling, and STM for non-word spelling. Additionally, multilinguals' word spelling performance was also predicted by their German lexicon size, and non-word spelling performance by PA. This study offers an in-depth look at spelling acquisition at a certain point of literacy development. Mono- and multilinguals have the predominant factors for spelling in common, but probably due to superior language knowledge, monolinguals were already able to make use of EF during spelling. For multilinguals, German lexicon size was more important for spelling than EF. For multilinguals' spelling these functions might come into play only at a later stage.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{Heidler2012,
  author    = {Heidler, Maria-Dorothea},
  title     = {Clock test in patients with severe aphasia},
  series = {Nervenheilkunde : Zeitschrift f{\"u}r interdisziplin{\"a}re Fortbildung},
  volume    = {31},
  journal   = {Nervenheilkunde : Zeitschrift f{\"u}r interdisziplin{\"a}re Fortbildung},
  number    = {11},
  publisher = {Schattauer},
  address   = {Stuttgart},
  issn      = {0722-1541},
  pages     = {837 -- 843},
  year      = {2012},
  abstract  = {Objective: How do patients with severe aphasia perform in the clock test? Methods:Ten patients with severe aphasia performed the clock test in two modes: copy a given clock (copy condition) and set a clock by drawing the clock hands, where a given digital display (11:10) should be transformed into an analogue display (time setting condition). Results: Not a single patient with severe aphasia was able to master any mode of the clock test. Both copy and time conditions were severely impaired by executive, conceptual, motoric visuospatial and apraxic disorders - impairments of language system were only one of numerous influencing factors. Conclusions and clinical relevance:The clock test measures and requires for its execution so many different cognitive, motoric and perceptual functions that it cannot adequately differentiate between patients with severe aphasia and other severe brain damage.},
  language  = {de}
}