@phdthesis{HoffmannRothe2002,
  author    = {Hoffmann-Rothe, Arne},
  title     = {Combined structural and magnetotelluric investigation across the West Fault Zone in northern Chile},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-0000569},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  year      = {2002},
  abstract  = {Untersuchungen zur internen Architektur von großen St{\"o}rungszonen beschr{\"a}nken sich {\"u}blicherweise auf die, an der Erdoberfl{\"a}che aufgeschlossene, st{\"o}rungsbezogene Deformation. Eine Methode, die es erm{\"o}glicht, Informationen {\"u}ber die Tiefenfortsetzung einer St{\"o}rung zu erhalten, ist die Abbildung der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Untergrundes. Die vorliegende Arbeit besch{\"a}ftigt sich mit der kombinierten strukturgeologischen und magnetotellurischen Untersuchung eines Segmentes der 'West Fault'-St{\"o}rung in den nordchilenischen Anden. Die West Fault ist ein Abschnitt des {\"u}ber 2000 km langen Pr{\"a}kordilleren-St{\"o}rungssystem, welches im Zusammenhang mit der Subduktion vor der s{\"u}damerikanischen Westk{\"u}ste entstanden ist. Die Aktivit{\"a}t dieses St{\"o}rungssystems reichte vom Eoz{\"a}n bis in das Quart{\"a}r. Der Verlauf der West Fault ist im Untersuchungsgebiet (22\&\#176;04'S, 68\&\#176;53'W) an der Oberfl{\"a}che klar definiert und weist {\"u}ber viele zehner Kilometer eine konstante Streichrichtung auf. Die Aufschlussbedingungen und die Morphologie des Arbeitsgebietes sind ideal f{\"u}r kombinierte Untersuchungen der st{\"o}rungsbezogenen Deformation und der elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeit des Untergrundes mit Hilfe magnetotellurischer Experimente (MT) und der erdmagnetischen Tiefensondierung (GDS). Ziel der Untersuchungen war es, eine m{\"o}gliche Korrelation der beiden Meßmethoden herauszuarbeiten, und die interne St{\"o}rungsarchitektur der West Fault umfassend zu beschreiben. Die Interpretation von Spr{\"o}dbruch-Strukturen (kleinmaßst{\"a}bliche St{\"o}rungen sowie St{\"o}rungsfl{\"a}chen mit/ohne Bewegungslineationen) im Untersuchungsgebiet weist auf {\"u}berwiegend seitenverschiebende Deformation entlang von subvertikal orientierten Scherfl{\"a}chen hin. Dextrale und sinistrale Bewegungsrichtungen k{\"o}nnen innerhalb der St{\"o}rungszone best{\"a}tigt werden, was auf Reaktivierungen des St{\"o}rungssystems schliessen l{\"a}ßt. Die j{\"u}ngsten Deformationen im Arbeitsgebiet haben dehnenden Charakter, wobei die kinematische Analyse eine unterschiedliche Orientierung der Extensionsrichtung beiderseits der St{\"o}rung andeutet. Die Bruchfl{\"a}chendichte nimmt mit Ann{\"a}herung an die St{\"o}rung zu und zeichnet einen etwa 1000 m breiten Bereich erh{\"o}hter Deformationsintensit{\"a}t um die St{\"o}rungsspur aus (damage zone). Im Zentrum dieser Zone weist das Gestein eine intensive Alteration und Brekzierung auf, die sich {\"u}ber eine Breite von etwa 400 m erstreckt. Kleine St{\"o}rungen und Scherfl{\"a}chen in diesem zentralen Abschnitt der St{\"o}rung fallen {\"u}berwiegend steil nach Osten ein (70-80\&\#176;). Innerhalb desselben Arbeitsgebietes wurde ein 4 km langes MT/GDS Profil vermessen, welches senkrecht zum Streichen der West Fault verl{\"a}uft. F{\"u}r die zentralen 2 km dieses Hauptprofils betr{\"a}gt der Abstand der Meßstationen jeweils 100 m. Ein weiteres Profil, bestehend aus 9 Stationen mit einem Abstand von 300 m zueinander, quert die St{\"o}rung einige Kilometer entfernt vom eigentlichen Arbeitsgebiet. Die Aufzeichnung der Daten erfolgte mit vier S.P.A.M MkIII Apparaturen in einem Frequenzbereich von 1000 Hz bis 0.001 Hz. In den GDS Daten beider Profile ist die St{\"o}rung f{\"u}r Frequenzen >1 Hz deutlich abgebildet: Die Induktionspfeile kennzeichnen eine mehrere hundert Meter breite Zone erh{\"o}hter Leitf{\"a}higkeit, welche sich entlang der West Fault erstreckt. Die Dimensionalit{\"a}tsanalyse der MT Daten rechtfertigt die Anpassung der gemessenen Daten mit einem zwei-dimensionalen Modell f{\"u}r einen Frequenzbereich von 1000 Hz bis 0.1 Hz. In diesem Frequenzbereich, der eine Aufl{\"o}sung der Leitf{\"a}higkeitsstruktur bis mindestens 5 km Tiefe erm{\"o}glicht, l{\"a}ßt sich eine regionale geoelektrische Streichrichtung parallel zum Verlauf der West Fault nachweisen. Die Modellierung der MT Daten beruht auf einem Inversionsalgorithmus von Mackie et al. (1997). Leitf{\"a}higkeitsanomalien, die sich aus der Inversions-Modellierung ergeben, werden anhand von empirischen Sensitivit{\"a}tsstudien auf ihre Robustheit {\"u}berpr{\"u}ft. Dabei werden die Eigenschaften (Geometrie, Leitf{\"a}higkeit) der Strukturen systematisch variiert und sowohl Vorw{\"a}rts- als auch Inversionsrechnungen der modifizierten Modelle durchgef{\"u}hrt. Die jeweiligen Modellergebnisse werden auf ihre Konsistenz mit dem Ausgangsdatensatz {\"u}berpr{\"u}ft. Entlang beider MT Profile wird ein guter elektrischer Leiter im zentralen Abschnitt der West Fault aufgel{\"o}st, wobei die Bereiche erh{\"o}hter Leitf{\"a}higkeit {\"o}stlich der St{\"o}rungsspur liegen. F{\"u}r das dicht vermessene MT Profil ergibt sich eine Breite des St{\"o}rungsleiters von etwa 300 m sowie ein steiles Einfallen der Anomalie nach Osten (70\&\#176;). Der St{\"o}rungsleiter reicht bis in eine Tiefe von mindestens 1100 m, w{\"a}hrend die Modellierungsstudien auf eine maximale Tiefenerstreckung <2000 m hinweisen. Das Profil zeigt weitere leitf{\"a}hige Anomalien, deren Geometrie aber weniger genau aufgel{\"o}st ist. Die St{\"o}rungsleiter der beiden MT Profile stimmen in ihrer Position mit der Alterationszone {\"u}berein. Im zentralen Bereich des Hauptprofils korreliert dar{\"u}ber hinaus das Einfallen der Spr{\"o}dbruch-Strukturen und der Leitf{\"a}higkeitsanomalie. Dies weist darauf hin, daß die Erh{\"o}hung der Leitf{\"a}higkeit im Zusammenhang mit einem Netzwerk von Bruchstrukturen steht, welches m{\"o}gliche Wegsamkeiten f{\"u}r Fluide bietet. Der miteinander in Verbindung stehende Gesteins-Porenraum, der ben{\"o}tigt wird, um die gemessene Erh{\"o}hung der Leitf{\"a}higkeit durch Fluide im Gestein zu erkl{\"a}ren, kann anhand der Salinit{\"a}t einiger Grundwasserproben abgesch{\"a}tzt werden (Archies Gesetz). Wasserproben aus gr{\"o}ßerer Tiefe, weisen aufgrund intensiverer Fluid-Gesteins-Wechselwirkung eine h{\"o}here Salinit{\"a}t, und damit eine verbesserte Leitf{\"a}higkeit, auf. F{\"u}r eine Probe aus einer Tiefe von 200 m ergibt sich demnach eine ben{\"o}tigte Porosit{\"a}t im Bereich von 0.8\% - 4\%. Dies legt nahe, daß W{\"a}sser, die von der Oberfl{\"a}che in die Bruchzone der St{\"o}rung eindringen, ausreichen, um die beobachtete Leitf{\"a}higkeitserh{\"o}hung zu erkl{\"a}ren. Diese Deutung wird von der geochemischen Signatur von Gesteinsproben aus dem Alterationsbereich best{\"a}tigt, wonach die Alteration in einem Regime niedriger Temperatur (<95\&\#176;C) stattfand. Der Einfluß von aufsteigenden Tiefenw{\"a}ssern wurde hier nicht nachgewiesen. Die geringe Tiefenerstreckung des St{\"o}rungsleiters geht wahrscheinlich auf Verheilungs- und Zementationsprozesse der Bruchstrukturen zur{\"u}ck, die aufgrund der L{\"o}sung und F{\"a}llung von Mineralen in gr{\"o}ßerer Tiefe, und damit bei erh{\"o}hter Temperatur, aktiv sind. Der Vergleich der Untersuchungsergebnisse der zur Zeit seismisch inaktiven West Fault mit ver{\"o}ffentlichten Studien zur elektrischen Leitf{\"a}higkeitsstruktur der aktiven San Andreas St{\"o}rung, deutet darauf hin, daß die Tiefenerstreckung und die Leitf{\"a}higkeit von St{\"o}rungsleitern eine Funktion der St{\"o}rungsaktivit{\"a}t ist. Befindet sich eine St{\"o}rung in einem Stadium der Deformation, so bleibt das Bruchnetzwerk f{\"u}r Fluide permeabel und verhindert die Versiegelung desselben.},
  subject      = {Anden / St{\"o}rung <Geologie> / Strukturgeologie / Magnetotellurik / Chile <Nord>},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Warkus2002,
  author    = {Warkus, Frank},
  title     = {Die neogene Hebungsgeschichte der Patagonischen Anden im Kontext der Subduktion eines aktiven Spreizungszentrums},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-0000555},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  year      = {2002},
  abstract  = {Das Ph{\"a}nomen der Subduktion eines aktiven Spreizungszentrums an der S{\"u}dspitze S{\"u}damerikas ist seit langem bekannt. Eine Vielzahl von geologischen Beobachtungen wurden mit diesem Ph{\"a}nomen in Verbindung gebracht, trotzdem ist der genaue Mechanismus der Beeinflussung des aktiven Kontinentalrandes weitgehend unbekannt. Die Zusammenh{\"a}nge zwischen den Subduktionsprozessen und der Entwicklung der patagonischen Anden zwischen 47\&\#176;S und 48\&\#176;S stehen im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchungen. Um eine detaillierte zeitliche Aufl{\"o}sung der zugrunde liegenden Prozesse untersuchen zu k{\"o}nnen, wurde die Entwicklung der Vorlandsedimentation, die thermische Entwicklung und die Heraushebung der Oberkruste des andinen Orogens untersucht und diese in Bezug zur Subduktion des Chile-R{\"u}ckens gesetzt. Im Bereich von 47\&\#176;30\&prime;S wurden die synorogenen Vorlandsedimente der Santa Cruz Formation sedimentologisch untersucht. Diese fluviatilen Sedimente wurden in einem reliefarmen Vorlandgebiet durch h{\"a}ufige Rinnenverlagerung und dem Aufbau von Rinnenumlagerungsg{\"u}rteln in Kombination mit assoziierten großr{\"a}umigen {\"U}berflutungsablagerungen akkumuliert. Sie stehen in einem engen Zusammenhang mit der orogenen Entwicklung im andinen Liefergebiet. Dies spiegelt sich in dem nach oben gr{\"o}ber werdenden Zyklus der Santa Cruz Formation wider. Die magnetostratigraphischen Untersuchungen einer 270 m m{\"a}chtigen Sequenz aus der Basis der Santa Cruz Formation, die mit 329 Einzelproben aus 96 Probenpunkten beprobt wurde, ergab 7 Umkehrungen der geomagnetischen Feldrichtung. Mit Hilfe der geomagnetischen Polarit{\"a}tszeitskala (CANDE AND KENT, 1995) konnte der untersuchte Abschnitt der Santa Cruz Formation zwischen 16.2 und 18.5 Ma datiert werden. Als Tr{\"a}ger der Sedimentations-Remanenz konnten {\"u}berwiegend Pseudoeinbereichs-Magentitpartikel und untergeordnet H{\"a}matitpartikel identifiziert werden. An drei Profilen der Santa Cruz Formation wurden aus Sandsteinlagen unterschiedlicher stratigraphischer Position detritische Apatite mit Hilfe der thermochronologischen Spaltspurmethode untersucht. Die thermisch nicht r{\"u}ckgesetzten, detritischen Apatite spiegeln das Auftreten unterschiedlicher Altersdom{\"a}nen im Liefergebiet der Sedimente wider. In der Kombination mit den geochemischen Gesamtgesteinsuntersuchungen der Sedimente und den petrographischen Untersuchungen der Sandsteine, die ein {\"u}berwiegend andesitisch-vulkanisch gepr{\"a}gtes Liefergebiet widerspiegeln, kann nachgewiesen werden, dass die Erosion im Liefergebiet um 16.5 Ma in tiefere, deformierte Krustensegmente einschneidet. Dies bedeutet, dass aufgrund der Denudation im andinen Orogen erste Sockelgesteinseinheiten in den Bereich der Abtragung gelangen und dass dieser Eintrag um 12 bis 10 Ma ein Volumen einnimmt, das zu signifikanten {\"A}nderungen der Gesamtgesteinsgeochemie der Vorlandsedimente f{\"u}hrt. Die thermochronologische Untersuchung von Apatiten aus rezenten topographischen H{\"o}henprofilen aus der Kernzone der patagonischen Anden im Bereich von 47\&\#176;30\&prime;S zeigen den Beginn einer beschleunigten Heraushebung des Orogens um 7.5 Ma. Aus diesen Untersuchungen kann eine Denudationsrate im Zeitraum der letzen 7 bis 8 Ma von 600 bis 650 m/Ma abgesch{\"a}tzt werden. Die Modellierung der Apatit-Spaltspurergebnisse zeigt eine signifikante Temperaturerh{\"o}hung im Zeitraum zwischen 12 und 8 Ma um 20 bis 30\&\#176;C f{\"u}r diesen Krustenbereich, die mit der Subduktion des aktiven Chile-R{\"u}ckens in diesem Bereich der Anden in Verbindung gebracht wird. Aus den gewonnen Daten kann ein Modell f{\"u}r die Entwicklung der patagonischen Anden seit dem fr{\"u}hen Mioz{\"a}n abgeleitet werden. In diesem Modell wird die orogene Entwicklung in den patagonischen Anden auf eine erh{\"o}hte Konvergenzrate zwischen der Nazca Platte und der S{\"u}damerikanischen Platte zur{\"u}ckgef{\"u}hrt, die f{\"u}r die Heraushebung und Denudation der Anden sowie f{\"u}r die damit verbundene Entwicklung im Vorlandbereich verantwortlich ist. Diese orogene Entwicklung wird in einer sp{\"a}ten Phase durch die nordw{\"a}rts wandernde Subduktion des aktiven Spreizungszentrums des Chile R{\"u}ckens {\"u}berpr{\"a}gt und beeinflusst. Das auf der Integration von geologischen, chronologischen sowie thermochronologischen Daten beruhende Modell kann zahlreiche geologische und geophysikalische Beobachtungen in diesem Bereich der s{\"u}dlichen Anden konsistent erkl{\"a}ren.},
  subject      = {Patagonien ; Neogen ; Hebung ; Subduktion ; Anden},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{LauerDuenkelberg2023,
  author    = {Lauer-D{\"u}nkelberg, Gregor},
  title     = {Extensional deformation and landscape evolution of the Central Andean Plateau},
  doi       = {10.25932/publishup-61759},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-617593},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {xviii, 195},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {Mountain ranges can fundamentally influence the physical and and chemical processes that shape Earths' surface. With elevations of up to several kilometers they create climatic enclaves by interacting with atmospheric circulation and hydrologic systems, thus leading to a specific distribution of flora and fauna. As a result, the interiors of many Cenozoic mountain ranges are characterized by an arid climate, internally drained and sediment-filled basins, as well as unique ecosystems that are isolated from the adjacent humid, low-elevation regions along their flanks and forelands. These high-altitude interiors of orogens are often characterized by low relief and coalesced sedimentary basins, commonly referred to as plateaus, tectono-geomorphic entities that result from the complex interactions between mantle-driven geological and tectonic conditions and superposed atmospheric and hydrological processes. The efficiency of these processes and the fate of orogenic plateaus is therefore closely tied to the balance of constructive and destructive processes - tectonic uplift and erosion, respectively. In numerous geological studies it has been shown that mountain ranges are delicate systems that can be obliterated by an imbalance of these underlying forces. As such, Cenozoic mountain ranges might not persist on long geological timescales and will be destroyed by erosion or tectonic collapse. Advancing headward erosion of river systems that drain the flanks of the orogen may ultimately sever the internal drainage conditions and the maintenance of storage of sediments within the plateau, leading to destruction of plateau morphology and connectivity with the foreland. Orogenic collapse may be associated with the changeover from a compressional stress field with regional shortening and topographic growth, to a tensional stress field with regional extensional deformation and ensuing incision of the plateau. While the latter case is well-expressed by active extensional faults in the interior parts of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya, for example, the former has been attributed to have breached the internally drained areas of the high-elevation sectors of the Iranian Plateau. In the case of the Andes of South America and their internally drained Altiplano-Puna Plateau, signs of both processes have been previously described. However, in the orogenic collapse scenario the nature of the extensional structures had been primarily investigated in the northern and southern terminations of the plateau; in some cases, the extensional faults were even regarded to be inactive. After a shallow earthquake in 2020 within the Eastern Cordillera of Argentina that was associated with extensional deformation, the state of active deformation and the character of the stress field in the central parts of the plateau received renewed interest to explain a series of extensional structures in the northernmost sectors of the plateau in north-western Argentina. This study addresses (1) the issue of tectonic orogenic collapse of the Andes and the destruction of plateau morphology by studying the fill and erosion history of the central eastern Andean Plateau using sedimentological and geochronological data and (2) the kinematics, timing and magnitude of extensional structures that form well-expressed fault scarps in sediments of the regional San Juan del Oro surface, which is an integral part of the Andean Plateau and adjacent morphotectonic provinces to the east. Importantly, sediment properties and depositional ages document that the San Juan del Oro Surface was not part of the internally-drained Andean Plateau, but rather associated with a foreland-directed drainage system, which was modified by the Andean orogeny and that became successively incorporated into the orogen by the eastward-migration of the Andean deformation front during late Miocene - Pliocene time. Structural and geomorphic observations within the plateau indicate that extensional processes must have been repeatedly active between the late Miocene and Holocene supporting the notion of plateau-wide extensional processes, potentially associated with Mw ~ 7 earthquakes. The close relationship between extensional joints and fault orientations underscores that 3 was oriented horizontally in NW-SE direction and 1 was vertical. This unambiguously documents that the observed deformation is related to gravitational forces that drive the orogenic collapse of the plateau. Applied geochronological analyses suggest that normal faulting in the northern Puna was active at about 3 Ma, based on paired cosmogenic nuclide dating of sediment fill units. Possibly due to regional normal faulting the drainage system within the plateau was modified, promoting fluvial incision.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{KroegerRoussanovaSchmucketal.2013,
  author    = {Kr{\"o}ger, Bj{\"o}rn and Roussanova, Elena and Schmuck, Thomas and Schn{\"o}pf, Markus and Schwarz, Ingo and Thiemer-Sachse, Ursula},
  title     = {HiN : Alexander von Humboldt im Netz},
  series = {HIN : Alexander von Humboldt im Netz ; international review for Humboldtian studies},
  volume    = {XIV},
  journal   = {HIN : Alexander von Humboldt im Netz ; international review for Humboldtian studies},
  number    = {27},
  editor    = {Ette, Ottmar and Knobloch, Eberhard},
  publisher = {Universit{\"a}tsverlag Potsdam},
  address   = {Potsdam},
  issn      = {1617-5239},
  doi       = {10.18443/hinvol14iss272013},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-70191},
  pages     = {97},
  year      = {2013},
  abstract  = {Inhalt: Kr{\"o}ger, Bj{\"o}rn: Remarks on a scene, depicting the primeval world. A talk given by Leopold von Buch in 1831, popularizing the Duria antiquior Roussanova, Elena: Hermann Trautschold und die Ehrung Alexander von Humboldts in Russland Schmuck, Thomas: Tod in den Anden. Ein Brief Francis Halls an Humboldt 1831 und seine historischen und politischen Hintergr{\"u}nde Schnoepf, Markus: Evaluationskriterien f{\"u}r digitale Editionen und die reale Welt Thiemer-Sachse, Ursula: „Wir verbrachten mehr als 24 Stunden, ohne etwas anderes als Schokolade und Limonade zu uns zu nehmen". Hinweise in Alexander von Humboldts Tagebuchaufzeichnungen zu Fragen der Verpflegung auf der Forschungsreise durch Spanisch-Amerika Schwarz, Ingo: Hanno Beck zum 90. Geburtstag Beck, Hanno: Das literarische Testament Alexander von Humboldts 1799},
  language  = {de}
}
@phdthesis{VasquezParra2007,
  author    = {V{\´a}squez Parra, M{\´o}nica Fernanda},
  title     = {Mafic magmatism in the Eastern Cordillera and Putumayo Basin, Colombia : causes and consequences},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-13183},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  year      = {2007},
  abstract  = {The Eastern Cordillera of Colombia is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks deposited since early Mesozoic times. Magmatic rocks are scarce. They are represented only by a few locally restricted occurrences of dykes and sills of mafic composition presumably emplaced in the Cretaceous and of volcanic rocks of Neogene age. This work is focused on the study of the Cretaceous magmatism with the intention to understand the processes causing the genesis of these rocks and their significance in the regional tectonic setting of the Northern Andes. The magmatic rocks cut the Cretaceous sedimentary succession of black shales and marlstones that crop out in both flanks of the Eastern Cordillera. The studied rocks were classified as gabbros (C{\´a}ceres, Pacho, Rodrigoque), tonalites (C{\´a}ceres, La Corona), diorites and syenodiorites (La Corona), pyroxene-hornblende gabbros (Pacho), and pyroxene-hornblendites (Pajarito). The gabbroic samples are mainly composed of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and/or green to brown hornblende, whereas the tonalitic rocks are mainly composed of plagioclase and quartz. The samples are highly variable in crystal sizes from fine- to coarse-grained. Accessory minerals such as biotite, titanite and zircon are present. Some samples are characterized by moderate to strong alteration, and show the presence of epidote, actinolite and chlorite. Major and trace element compositions of the rocks as well as the rock-forming minerals show significant differences in the geochemical and petrological characteristics for the different localities, suggesting that this magmatism does not result from a single melting process. The wide compositional spectrum of trace elements in the intrusions is characteristic for different degrees of mantle melting and enrichment of incompatible elements. MORB- and OIB-like compositions suggest at least two different sources of magma with tholeiitic and alkaline affinity, respectively. Evidence of slab-derived fluids can be recognized in the western part of the basin reflected in higher Ba/Nb and Sr/P ratios and also in the Sr radiogenic isotope ratios, which is possible a consequence of metasomatism in the mantle due to processes related to the presence of a previously subducted slab. The trace element patterns evidence an extensional setting in the Cretaceous basin producing a continental rift, with continental crust being stretched until oceanic crust was generated in the last stages of this extension. Electron microprobe analyses (EMPA) of the major elements and synchrotron radiation micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-SRXRF) analyses of the trace element composition of the early crystallized minerals of the intrusions (clinopyroxenes and amphiboles) reflect the same dual character that has been found in the bulk-rock analyses. Despite the observed alteration of the rocks, the mineral composition shows evidences for an enriched and a relative depleted magma source. Even the normalization of the trace element concentrations of clinopyroxenes and amphiboles to the whole rock nearly follows the pattern predicted by published partition coefficients, suggesting that the alteration did not change the original trace element compositions of the investigated minerals. Sr-Nd-Pb isotope data reveal a large isotopic variation but still suggest an initial origin of the magmas in the mantle. Samples have moderate to highly radiogenic compositions of 143Nd/144Nd and high 87Sr/86Sr ratios and follow a trend towards enriched mantle compositions, like the local South American Paleozoic crust. The melts experienced variable degrees of contamination by sediments, crust, and seawater. The age corrected Pb isotope ratios show two separated groups of samples. This suggests that the chemical composition of the mantle below the Northern Andes has been modified by the interaction with other components resulting in a heterogeneous combination of materials of diverse origins. Although previous K/Ar age dating have shown that the magmatism took place in the Cretaceous, the high error of the analyses and the altered nature of the investigated minerals did preclude reliable interpretations. In the present work 40Ar/39Ar dating was carried out. The results show a prolonged history of magmatism during the Cretaceous over more than 60 Ma, from ~136 to ~74 Ma (Hauterivian to Campanian). Pre-Cretaceous rifting phases occurred in the Triassic-Jurassic for the western part of the basin and in the Paleozoic for the eastern part. Those previous rifting phases are decisive mechanisms controlling the localization and composition of the Cretaceous magmatism. Therefore, it is the structural position and not the age of the intrusions which preconditions the kind of magmatism and the degree of melting. The divergences on ages are the consequence of the segmentation of the basin in several sub-basins which stretching, thermal evolution and subsidence rate evolved independently. The first hypothesis formulated at the beginning of this investigation was that the Cretaceous gabbroic intrusions identified in northern Ecuador could be correlated with the intrusions described in the Eastern Cordillera. The mafic occurrences should mark the location of the most subsiding places of the large Cretaceous basin in northern South America. For this reason, the gabbroic intrusions cutting the Cretaceous succession in the Putumayo Basin, southern Colombia, were investigated. The results of the studies were quite unexpected. The petrologic and geochemical character of the magmatic rocks indicates subduction-related magmatism. K/Ar dating of amphibole yields a Late Miocene to Pliocene age (6.1 ± 0.7 Ma) for the igneous event in the basin. Although there is no correlation between this magmatic event and the Cretaceous magmatic event, the data obtained has significant tectonic and economic implications. The emplacement of the Neogene gabbroic rocks coincides with the late Miocene/Pliocene Andean orogenic uplift as well as with a significant pulse of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Zapata2019,
  author    = {Zapata, Sebastian Henao},
  title     = {Paleozoic to Pliocene evolution of the Andean retroarc between 26 and 28°S: interactions between tectonics, climate, and upper plate architecture},
  doi       = {10.25932/publishup-43903},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-439036},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {139},
  year      = {2019},
  abstract  = {Interactions and feedbacks between tectonics, climate, and upper plate architecture control basin geometry, relief, and depositional systems. The Andes is part of a longlived continental margin characterized by multiple tectonic cycles which have strongly modified the Andean upper plate architecture. In the Andean retroarc, spatiotemporal variations in the structure of the upper plate and tectonic regimes have resulted in marked along-strike variations in basin geometry, stratigraphy, deformational style, and mountain belt morphology. These along-strike variations include high-elevation plateaus (Altiplano and Puna) associated with a thin-skin fold-and-thrust-belt and thick-skin deformation in broken foreland basins such as the Santa Barbara system and the Sierras Pampeanas. At the confluence of the Puna Plateau, the Santa Barbara system and the Sierras Pampeanas, major along-strike changes in upper plate architecture, mountain belt morphology, basement exhumation, and deformation style can be recognized. I have used a source to sink approach to unravel the spatiotemporal tectonic evolution of the Andean retroarc between 26 and 28°S. I obtained a large low-temperature thermochronology data set from basement units which includes apatite fission track, apatite U-Th-Sm/He, and zircon U-Th/He (ZHe) cooling ages. Stratigraphic descriptions of Miocene units were temporally constrained by U-Pb LA-ICP-MS zircon ages from interbedded pyroclastic material. Modeled ZHe ages suggest that the basement of the study area was exhumed during the Famatinian orogeny (550-450 Ma), followed by a period of relative tectonic quiescence during the Paleozoic and the Triassic. The basement experienced horst exhumation during the Cretaceous development of the Salta rift. After initial exhumation, deposition of thick Cretaceous syn-rift strata caused reheating of several basement blocks within the Santa Barbara system. During the Eocene-Oligocene, the Andean compressional setting was responsible for the exhumation of several disconnected basement blocks. These exhumed blocks were separated by areas of low relief, in which humid climate and low erosion rates facilitated the development of etchplains on the crystalline basement. The exhumed basement blocks formed an Eocene to Oligocene broken foreland basin in the back-bulge depozone of the Andean foreland. During the Early Miocene, foreland basin strata filled up the preexisting Paleogene topography. The basement blocks in lower relief positions were reheated; associated geothermal gradients were higher than 25°C/km. Miocene volcanism was responsible for lateral variations on the amount of reheating along the Campo-Arenal basin. Around 12 Ma, a new deformational phase modified the drainage network and fragmented the lacustrine system. As deformation and rock uplift continued, the easily eroded sedimentary cover was efficiently removed and reworked by an ephemeral fluvial system, preventing the development of significant relief. After ~6 Ma, the low erodibility of the basement blocks which began to be exposed caused relief increase, leading to the development of stable fluvial systems. Progressive relief development modified atmospheric circulation, creating a rainfall gradient. After 3 Ma, orographic rainfall and high relief lead to the development of proximal fluvial-gravitational depositional systems in the surrounding basins.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Purinton2020,
  author    = {Purinton, Benjamin},
  title     = {Remote sensing applications to earth surface processes in the Eastern Central Andes},
  doi       = {10.25932/publishup-44592},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-445926},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {xiii, 134},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {Geomorphology seeks to characterize the forms, rates, and magnitudes of sediment and water transport that sculpt landscapes. This is generally referred to as earth surface processes, which incorporates the influence of biologic (e.g., vegetation), climatic (e.g., rainfall), and tectonic (e.g., mountain uplift) factors in dictating the transport of water and eroded material. In mountains, high relief and steep slopes combine with strong gradients in rainfall and vegetation to create dynamic expressions of earth surface processes. This same rugged topography presents challenges in data collection and process measurement, where traditional techniques involving detailed observations or physical sampling are difficult to apply at the scale of entire catchments. Herein lies the utility of remote sensing. Remote sensing is defined as any measurement that does not disturb the natural environment, typically via acquisition of images in the visible- to radio-wavelength range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Remote sensing is an especially attractive option for measuring earth surface processes, because large areal measurements can be acquired at much lower cost and effort than traditional methods. These measurements cover not only topographic form, but also climatic and environmental metrics, which are all intertwined in the study of earth surface processes. This dissertation uses remote sensing data ranging from handheld camera-based photo surveying to spaceborne satellite observations to measure the expressions, rates, and magnitudes of earth surface processes in high-mountain catchments of the Eastern Central Andes in Northwest Argentina. This work probes the limits and caveats of remote sensing data and techniques applied to geomorphic research questions, and presents important progress at this disciplinary intersection.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Zeckra2020,
  author    = {Zeckra, Martin},
  title     = {Seismological and seismotectonic analysis of the northwestern Argentine Central Andean foreland},
  doi       = {10.25932/publishup-47324},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-473240},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {vii, 120},
  year      = {2020},
  abstract  = {After a severe M W 5.7 earthquake on October 17, 2015 in El Galp{\´o}n in the province of Salta NW Argentina, I installed a local seismological network around the estimated epicenter. The network covered an area characterized by inherited Cretaceous normal faults and neotectonic faults with unknown recurrence intervals, some of which may have been reactivated normal faults. The 13 three-component seismic stations recorded data continuously for 15 months. The 2015 earthquake took place in the Santa B{\´a}rbara System of the Andean foreland, at about 17km depth. This region is the easternmost morphostructural region of the central Andes. As a part of the broken foreland, it is bounded to the north by the Subandes fold-and-thrust belt and the Sierras Pampeanas to the south; to the east lies the Chaco-Paran{\´a} basin. A multi-stage morphotectonic evolution with thick-skinned basement uplift and coeval thin-skinned deformation in the intermontane basins is suggested for the study area. The release of stresses associated with the foreland deformation can result in strong earthquakes, as the study area is known for recurrent and historical, destructive earthquakes. The available continuous record reaches back in time, when the strongest event in 1692 (magnitude 7 or intensity IX) destroyed the city of Esteco. Destructive earthquakes and surface deformation are thus a hallmark of this part of the Andean foreland. With state-of-the-art Python packages (e.g. pyrocko, ObsPy), a semi-automatic approach is followed to analyze the collected continuous data of the seismological network. The resulting 1435 hypocenter locations consist of three different groups: 1.) local crustal earthquakes (nearly half of the events belong to this group), 2.) interplate activity, of regional distance in the slab of the Nazca-plate, and 3.) very deep earthquakes at about 600km depth. My major interest focused on the first event class. Those crustal events are partly aftershock events of the El Galp{\´o}n earthquake and a second earthquake, in the south of the same fault. Further events can be considered as background seismicity of other faults within the study area. Strikingly, the seismogenic zone encompass the whole crust and propagates brittle deformation down, close to the Moho. From the collected seismological data, a local seismic velocity model is estimated, using VELEST. After the execution of various stability tests, the robust minimum 1D-velocity model implies guiding values for the composition of the local, subsurface structure of the crust. Afterwards, performing a hypocenter relocation enables the assignment of individual earthquakes to aftershock clusters or extended seismotectonic structures. This allows the mapping of previously unknown seismogenic faults. Finally, focal mechanisms are modeled for events with acurately located hypocenters, using the newly derived local velocity model. A compressive regime is attested by the majority of focal mechanisms, while the strike direction of the individual seismogenic structures is in agreement with the overall north - south orientation of the Central Andes, its mountain front, and individual mountain ranges in the southern Santa-B{\´a}rbara-System.},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Martin2005,
  author    = {Martin, Sebastian},
  title     = {Subduction zone wave guides : deciphering slab structure using intraslab seismicity at the Chile-Peru subduction zone},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-5820},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  year      = {2005},
  abstract  = {Subduction zones are regions of intense earthquake activity up to great depth. Sources are located inside the subducting lithosphere and, as a consequence, seismic radiation from subduction zone earthquakes is strongly affected by the interior slab structure. The wave field of these intraslab events observed in the forearc region is profoundly influenced by a seismically slow layer atop the slab surface. This several kilometer thick low-velocity channel (wave guide) causes the entrapment of seismic energy producing strong guided wave phases that appear in P onsets in certain regions of the forearc. Observations at the Chile-Peru subduction zone presented here, as well as observations at several other circum-pacific subduction zones show such signals. Guided wave analysis contributes details of immense value regarding the processes near the slab surface, such as layering of subducted lithosphere, source locations of intraslab seismicity and most of all, range and manner of mineralogical phase transitions. Seismological data stem from intermediate depth events (depth range 70 km - 300 km) recorded in northern Chile near 21 Grad S during the collaborative research initiative " Deformation Processes in the Andes" (SFB 267). A subset of stations - all located within a slab-parallel transect close to 69 Grad W - show low-frequency first arrivals (2 Hz), sometimes followed by a second high-frequency phase. We employ 2-dimensional finite-difference simulations of complete P-SV wave propagation to explore the parameter space of subduction zone wave guides and explain the observations. Key processes underlying the guided wave propagation are studied: Two distinct mechanisms of decoupling of trapped energy from the wave guide are analyzed - a prerequisite to observe the phases at stations located at large distances from the wave guide (up to 100 km). Variations of guided wave effects perpendicular to the strike of the subduction zone are investigated, such as the influence of phases traveling in the fast slab. Further, the merits and limits of guided wave analysis are assessed. Frequency spectra of the guided wave onsets prove to be a robust quantity that captures guided wave characteristics at subduction zones including higher mode excitation. They facilitate the inference of wave guide structure and source positioning: The peak frequency of the guided wave fundamental mode is associated with a certain combination of layer width and velocity contrast. The excitation strength of the guided wave fundamental mode and higher modes is associated with source position and orientation relative to the low-velocity layer. The guided wave signals at the Chile-Peru subduction zone are caused by energy that leaks from the subduction zone wave guide. On the one hand, the bend shape of the slab allows for leakage at a depth of 100 km. On the other, equalization of velocities between the wave guide and the host rocks causes further energy leakage at the contact zone between continental and oceanic crust (70 km depth). Guided waves bearing information on deep slab structure can therefore be recorded at specific regions in the forearc. These regions are determined based on slab geometry, and their locations coincide with the observations. A number of strong constraints on the structure of the Chile-Peru slab are inferred: The deep wave guide for intraslab events is formed by a layer of 2 km average width that remains seismically slow (7 percent velocity reduction compared to surrounding mantle). This low-velocity layer at the top of the Chile-Peru slab is imaged from a depth of 100 km down to at least 160 km. Intermediate depth events causing the observed phases are located inside the layer or directly beneath it in the slab mantle. The layer is interpreted as partially eclogized lower oceanic crust persisting to depth beyond the volcanic arc.},
  subject      = {Anden},
  language  = {en}
}
@phdthesis{Pons2023,
  author    = {Pons, Micha{\"e}l},
  title     = {The Nature of the tectonic shortening in Central Andes},
  doi       = {10.25932/publishup-60089},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus4-600892},
  school      = {Universit{\"a}t Potsdam},
  pages     = {160},
  year      = {2023},
  abstract  = {The Andean Cordillera is a mountain range located at the western South American margin and is part of the Eastern- Circum-Pacific orogenic Belt. The ~7000 km long mountain range is one of the longest on Earth and hosts the second largest orogenic plateau in the world, the Altiplano-Puna plateau. The Andes are known as a non-collisional subduction-type orogen which developed as a result of the interaction between the subducted oceanic Nazca plate and the South American continental plate. The different Andean segments exhibit along-strike variations of morphotectonic provinces characterized by different elevations, volcanic activity, deformation styles, crustal thickness, shortening magnitude and oceanic plate geometry. Most of the present-day elevation can be explained by crustal shortening in the last ~50 Ma, with the shortening magnitude decreasing from ~300 km in the central (15°S-30°S) segment to less than half that in the southern part (30°S-40°S). Several factors were proposed that might control the magnitude and acceleration of shortening of the Central Andes in the last 15 Ma. One important factor is likely the slab geometry. At 27-33°S, the slab dips horizontally at ~100 km depth due to the subduction of the buoyant Juan Fernandez Ridge, forming the Pampean flat-slab. This horizontal subduction is thought to influence the thermo-mechanical state of the Sierras Pampeanas foreland, for instance, by strengthening the lithosphere and promoting the thick-skinned propagation of deformation to the east, resulting in the uplift of the Sierras Pampeanas basement blocks. The flat-slab has migrated southwards from the Altiplano latitude at ~30 Ma to its present-day position and the processes and consequences associated to its passage on the contemporaneous acceleration of the shortening rate in Central Andes remain unclear. Although the passage of the flat-slab could offer an explanation to the acceleration of the shortening, the timing does not explain the two pulses of shortening at about 15 Ma and 4 Ma that are suggested from geological observations. I hypothesize that deformation in the Central Andes is controlled by a complex interaction between the subduction dynamics of the Nazca plate and the dynamic strengthening and weakening of the South American plate due to several upper plate processes. To test this hypothesis, a detailed investigation into the role of the flat-slab, the structural inheritance of the continental plate, and the subduction dynamics in the Andes is needed. Therefore, I have built two classes of numerical thermo-mechanical models: (i) The first class of models are a series of generic E-W-oriented high-resolution 2D subduction models thatinclude flat subduction in order to investigate the role of the subduction dynamics on the temporal variability of the shortening rate in the Central Andes at Altiplano latitudes (~21°S). The shortening rate from the models was then validated with the observed tectonic shortening rate in the Central Andes. (ii) The second class of models are a series of 3D data-driven models of the present-day Pampean flat-slab configuration and the Sierras Pampeanas (26-42°S). The models aim to investigate the relative contribution of the present-day flat subduction and inherited structures in the continental lithosphere on the strain localization. Both model classes were built using the advanced finite element geodynamic code ASPECT. The first main finding of this work is to suggest that the temporal variability of shortening in the Central Andes is primarily controlled by the subduction dynamics of the Nazca plate while it penetrates into the mantle transition zone. These dynamics depends on the westward velocity of the South American plate that provides the main crustal shortening force to the Andes and forces the trench to retreat. When the subducting plate reaches the lower mantle, it buckles on it-self until the forced trench retreat causes the slab to steepen in the upper mantle in contrast with the classical slab-anchoring model. The steepening of the slab hinders the trench causing it to resist the advancing South American plate, resulting in the pulsatile shortening. This buckling and steepening subduction regime could have been initiated because of the overall decrease in the westwards velocity of the South American plate. In addition, the passage of the flat-slab is required to promote the shortening of the continental plate because flat subduction scrapes the mantle lithosphere, thus weakening the continental plate. This process contributes to the efficient shortening when the trench is hindered, followed by mantle lithosphere delamination at ~20 Ma. Finally, the underthrusting of the Brazilian cratonic shield beneath the orogen occurs at ~11 Ma due to the mechanical weakening of the thick sediments covered the shield margin, and due to the decreasing resistance of the weakened lithosphere of the orogen. The second main finding of this work is to suggest that the cold flat-slab strengthens the overriding continental lithosphere and prevents strain localization. Therefore, the deformation is transmitted to the eastern front of the flat-slab segment by the shear stress operating at the subduction interface, thus the flat-slab acts like an indenter that "bulldozes" the mantle-keel of the continental lithosphere. The offset in the propagation of deformation to the east between the flat and steeper slab segments in the south causes the formation of a transpressive dextral shear zone. Here, inherited faults of past tectonic events are reactivated and further localize the deformation in an en-echelon strike-slip shear zone, through a mechanism that I refer to as "flat-slab conveyor". Specifically, the shallowing of the flat-slab causes the lateral deformation, which explains the timing of multiple geological events preceding the arrival of the flat-slab at 33°S. These include the onset of the compression and of the transition between thin to thick-skinned deformation styles resulting from the crustal contraction of the crust in the Sierras Pampeanas some 10 and 6 Myr before the Juan Fernandez Ridge collision at that latitude, respectively.},
  language  = {en}
}