@misc{AngeleSlatteryYangetal.2008,
  author    = {Angele, Bernhard and Slattery, Timothy J. and Yang, Jinmian and Kliegl, Reinhold and Rayner, Keith},
  title     = {Parafoveal processing in reading: Manipulating n+1 and n+2 previews simultaneously},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-57128},
  year      = {2008},
  abstract  = {The boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) with a novel preview manipulation was used to examine the extent of parafoveal processing of words to the right of fixation. Words n+1 and n+2 had either correct or incorrect previews prior to fixation (prior to crossing the boundary location). In addition, the manipulation utilized either a high or low frequency word in word n+1 location on the assumption that it would be more likely that n+2 preview effects could be obtained when word n+1 was high frequency. The primary findings were that there was no evidence for a preview benefit for word n+2 and no evidence for parafoveal-on-foveal effects when word n+1 is at least four letters long. We discuss implications for models of eye-movement control in reading.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesDittmannKohliKliegl1986,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Dittmann-Kohli, Freya and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Reserve capacity of the elderly in aging-sensitive tests of fluid intelligence : replication and extension},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-39939},
  year      = {1986},
  abstract  = {Fluid intelligence belongs to that cluster of intellectual abilities evincing aging loss. To examine further the range of intellectual reserve available to aging individuals and the question of replicability in a new cultural and laboratory setting, 204 healthy older adults (mean age = 72 years; range = 60-86) participated in a short-term longitudinal training study. For experimental subjects, 10 sessions consisted of cognitive training involving two subability tests (Figural Relations, Induction) of fluid intelligence. The pattern of outcomes replicates and expands on earlier studies. Older adults have the reserve to evince substantial increases in levels of performance in fluid intelligence tests. Transfer of training, however, is narrow in scope. Training also increases accuracy of performance and the ability to solve more difficult test items. Difficulty level was estimated in a separate study, with a comparable sample of N = 112 elderly adults. Future research is suggested to examine whether intellectual reserve extends to near-maximum levels of performance.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesKliegl1986,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {On the dynamics between growth and decline in the aging of intelligence and memory},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-41116},
  year      = {1986},
  abstract  = {Content: - Different Intellectual Abilities Age Differently - Cultural Change and Interindividual Variability in Aging - Cognitive Intervention Research on Plasticity in Old Age * Psychological Evidence * Brain-Physiological Evidence - Age Differences and Testing-the-Limits - Conclusions - Summary},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesKliegl1992,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Further testing of limits of cognitive plasticity : negative age differences in a mnemonic skill are robust},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40373},
  year      = {1992},
  abstract  = {Earlier testing-the-limits research on age differences in cognitive plasticity of a memory skill was extended by 18 additional assessment and training sessions to explore whether older adults were able to catch up with additional practice and improved training conditions. The focus was on the method of loci, which requires mental imagination to encode and retrieve lists of words from memory in serial order. Of the original 37 subjects, 35 (16 young, ranging from 20 to 30 years of age, and 19 older adults, ranging from 66 to 80 years of age) participated in the follow-up study. Older adults showed sizable performance deficits when compared with young adults and tested for limits of reserve capacity. The negative age difference was substantial, resistant to extensive practice, and applied to all subjects studied. The primary origin for this negative age difference may be a loss in the production and use of mental imagination for operations of the mind.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesKliegl1988,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Lernen und Ged{\"a}chtnis im Alter : {\"u}ber Plastizit{\"a}t und deren Grenzen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40277},
  year      = {1988},
  abstract  = {Ged{\"a}chtnish{\"o}chstleistungen sind auch im Alter m{\"o}glich. Dies konnte am Beispiel der »Methode der Orte« experimentell best{\"a}tigt werden. Hierbei hat sich gezeigt, daß das Gehirn {\"u}ber große kognitive Kapazit{\"a}tsreserven verf{\"u}gt. In einer speziellen Testmethode (»testing the limits«) zeigt sich aber im Hochleistungsbereich, trotz der grunds{\"a}tzlichen Plastizit{\"a}t, ein altersbezogenes Nachlassen der Ged{\"a}chtnismechanik. Offenbar gibt es biologische Grenzen in der Schnelligkeit der menschlichen Vorstellungskraft. Vielleicht gelingt es auf der Grundlage dieser Erkentnnis, einen zuverl{\"a}ssigen Markierungsindikator f{\"u}r das hirnphysiologische Altern zu finden. Daraus k{\"o}nnten sich auch neue Methoden zur Fr{\"u}herkennung von Demenzen ableiten lassen.},
  language  = {de}
}
@misc{BaltesKlieglDittmannKohli1988,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold and Dittmann-Kohli, Freya},
  title     = {On the locus of training gains in research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence in old age},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40288},
  year      = {1988},
  abstract  = {Cognitive training research has shown that many older adults have a substantial reserve capacity in fluid intelligence. Little is known, however, about the locus of plasticity. Two studies were conducted to examine whether training gains in fluid abilities are critically dependent on experimenter-guided training and/or whether older adults can achieve similar improvements by themselves on the basis of cognitive skills already available in their repertoire. Several comparisons were made: (a) between test performances after trainer-guided training in ability-specific cognitive skills and after self-guided retest practice (without feedback), (b) between performances under speeded and power conditions of assessment, (c) between performances on easy and difficult items, and (d) between the relative numbers of correct and wrong answers. Results suggest that a large share of the training improvement shown by the elderly can plausibly be explained as the result of the activation and practice of cognitive skills already available in their repertoire. The results also have implications for educational practice, pointing to the appropriateness of strategies of self-directed learning for many elderly adults.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesSowarkaKliegl1989,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Sowarka, Doris and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Cognitive training research on fluid intelligence in old age : what can older adults achieve by themselves?},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40297},
  year      = {1989},
  abstract  = {Cognitive research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence has demonstrated that older adults benefit markedly from guided practice in cognitive skills and problem-solving strategies. We examined to what degree older adults are capable by themselves of achieving similar practice gains, focusing on the fluid ability of figural relations. A sample of 72 healthy older adults was assigned randomly to three conditions: control, tutor-guided training, self-guided training. Training time and training materials were held constant for the two training conditions. Posttraining performances were analyzed using a transfer of training paradigm in terms of three indicators: correct responses, accuracy, and level of item difficulty. The training programs were effective and produced a significant but narrow band of within-ability transfer. However, there was no difference between the two training groups. Older adults were shown to be capable of producing gains by themselves that were comparable to those obtained following tutor-guided training in the nature of test-relevant cognitive skills.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BohnKliegl2008,
  author    = {Bohn, Christiane and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Zur Interaktion von Verarbeitungstiefe und dem Wortvorhersagbarkeitseffekt beim Lesen von S{\"a}tzen},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-57036},
  year      = {2008},
  language  = {de}
}
@misc{BostonHaleKliegletal.2008,
  author    = {Boston, Marisa Ferrara and Hale, John and Kliegl, Reinhold and Patil, Umesh and Vasishth, Shravan},
  title     = {Parsing costs as predictors of reading difficulty: An evaluation using the Potsdam Sentence Corpus},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-57139},
  year      = {2008},
  abstract  = {The surprisal of a word on a probabilistic grammar constitutes a promising complexity metric for human sentence comprehension difficulty. Using two different grammar types, surprisal is shown to have an effect on fixation durations and regression probabilities in a sample of German readers' eye movements, the Potsdam Sentence Corpus. A linear mixed-effects model was used to quantify the effect of surprisal while taking into account unigram and bigram frequency, word length, and empirically-derived word predictability; the so-called "early" and "late" measures of processing difficulty both showed an effect of surprisal. Surprisal is also shown to have a small but statistically non-significant effect on empirically-derived predictability itself. This work thus demonstrates the importance of including parsing costs as a predictor of comprehension difficulty in models of reading, and suggests that a simple identification of syntactic parsing costs with early measures and late measures with durations of post-syntactic events may be difficult to uphold.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BostonHaleVasishthetal.2011,
  author    = {Boston, Marisa Ferrara and Hale, John T. and Vasishth, Shravan and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Parallel processing and sentence comprehension difficulty},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-57159},
  year      = {2011},
  abstract  = {Eye fixation durations during normal reading correlate with processing difficulty but the specific cognitive mechanisms reflected in these measures are not well understood. This study finds support in German readers' eyefixations for two distinct difficulty metrics: surprisal, which reflects the change in probabilities across syntactic analyses as new words are integrated, and retrieval, which quantifies comprehension difficulty in terms of working memory constraints. We examine the predictions of both metrics using a family of dependency parsers indexed by an upper limit on the number of candidate syntactic analyses they retain at successive words. Surprisal models all fixation measures and regression probability. By contrast, retrieval does not model any measure in serial processing. As more candidate analyses are considered in parallel at each word, retrieval can account for the same measures as surprisal. This pattern suggests an important role for ranked parallelism in theories of sentence comprehension.},
  language  = {en}
}