@misc{KlieglBaltes1987,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Theory-guided analysis of mechanisms of development and aging through testing-the-limits and research on expertise},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40265},
  year      = {1987},
  abstract  = {Content: 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical background - Expertise and Reserve Capacity - Testing-the-Limits and Research on Expertise - Cognitive Processes and Knowledge - Age Comparisons of Peak Performance - Advantages of Constructed Versus Naturally Acquired Expertise - Hypotheses Related to Aging and Expertise: Toward Magnification and Identification of Age Differences and Aging-Sensitive Components 3 Theory-guided synthesis of memory expertise - Theoretical Framework - Procedure - Subjects - Results 4 Adaptivity testing of expert memory - Increasing Task Difficulty Within an Extant System - Selective Componential Interference - Toward the Study of Compensatory Processes 5 Conclusions},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{KlieglSmithBaltes1986,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Smith, Jacqui and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Testing-the-limits, expertise, and memory in adulthood and old age},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-39063},
  year      = {1986},
  abstract  = {This research has three interrelated foci: (i) engineering and testing a cognitive model of expert memory, (ii) the study of intellectual reserve capacity and (iii) the use of a testing-the-limits methodology to magnify and delineate age differences in limits of reserve capacity. The assumption is that age differences are magnified if studied at high levels of expertise or task difficulty. Results from age-comparative point training studies in expert memory are reported. Both young and elderly subjects reached high levels of skilled memory, confirming the model. However, despite this sizeable reserve capacity, when compared to IQ-eguivalent young adults, superior elderly showed decline in upper limits of function.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{KlieglBaltes1991,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Testing-the-Limits kognitiver Entwicklungskapazit{\"a}t in einer Ged{\"a}chtnisleistung},
  issn      = {0233-2353},
  year      = {1991},
  language  = {de}
}
@misc{KlieglBaltes1991,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Testing-the-Limits kognitiver Entwicklungskapazit{\"a}t in einer Ged{\"a}chtnisleistung},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40362},
  year      = {1991},
  abstract  = {Bisherige Ergebnisse der kognitiven Altersforschung erlauben keine Schlußfolgerung dar{\"u}ber, ob die Gr{\"o}ße und Robustheit der Altersverluste in kognitiven Basisprozessen irreversibel sind und folglich als Indikatoren neurobiologischer Grenzen des alternden Organismus interpretiert werden k{\"o}nnen: Durch die Forschungsstrategie des Testing-the-Limits wurden im Zusammenhang mit einer kognitiven Intervention zuverl{\"a}ssige Ergebnisse bez{\"u}glich alterskorrelierter Grenzen kognitiver Entwicklungskapazit{\"a}t erwartet. Gesunde {\"a}ltere und junge Erwachsene nahmen an 38 {\"u}ber ein Jahr verteilten experimentellen Sitzungen teil, in denen sie in einer Ged{\"a}chtnistechnik, der Methode der Orte, trainiert und wiederholt getestest wurden. Die Kriteriumsaufgabe war das Behalten langer Wortlisten auf der Grundlage der Erzeugung phantasievoller Gedankenbilder. Obwohl {\"a}ltere Erwachsene in der Lage waren, die Ged{\"a}chtnistechnik zu erwerben, zeigte sich unter Testing-the-Limits- Bedingungen eine nahezu vollst{\"a}ndige Entzerrung der Leistungsverteilungen junger und {\"a}lterer Erwachsener, die auch durch langfristiges Training nicht abgebaut wurde. Die Ergebnisse werden in Hinblick auf (1) die Bedeutung spezifischer kognitiver Basisprozesse, (2) Kohorten- bvs. biologische Alterseffekte und (3) m{\"o}gliche Ausnahmen vom Altersabbau diskutiert.},
  language  = {de}
}
@misc{KlieglSmithBaltes1989,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Smith, Jacqui and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Testing-the-limits and the study of adult age differences in cognitive plasticity of a mnemonic skill},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40311},
  year      = {1989},
  abstract  = {Investigated the range and limits of cognitive reserve capacity as a general approach to the understanding of age differences in cognitive functioning. Testing-the-limits is proposed as a research strategy, Data are reported from 2 training studies involving old (65 to 83 years old) and young adults (19 to 29 years old). The training, designed to engineer an expertise in serial word recall, involved instruction and practice in the Method of Loci. Substantial plasticity was evident in pretest to posttest comparisons. Participants raised their serial word recall several times above that of pretest baseline. Age-differential limits in reserve capacity were evident in amount of training gain but not in responses to conditions of increased test difficulty (speeded stimulus presentation). Group differences were magnified by the training to such a degree that age distributions barely overlapped at posttests. Testing-the-limits offers promise in terms of understanding the extent and nature of cognitive plasticity.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesDittmannKohliKliegl1986,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Dittmann-Kohli, Freya and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {Reserve capacity of the elderly in aging-sensitive tests of fluid intelligence : replication and extension},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-39939},
  year      = {1986},
  abstract  = {Fluid intelligence belongs to that cluster of intellectual abilities evincing aging loss. To examine further the range of intellectual reserve available to aging individuals and the question of replicability in a new cultural and laboratory setting, 204 healthy older adults (mean age = 72 years; range = 60-86) participated in a short-term longitudinal training study. For experimental subjects, 10 sessions consisted of cognitive training involving two subability tests (Figural Relations, Induction) of fluid intelligence. The pattern of outcomes replicates and expands on earlier studies. Older adults have the reserve to evince substantial increases in levels of performance in fluid intelligence tests. Transfer of training, however, is narrow in scope. Training also increases accuracy of performance and the ability to solve more difficult test items. Difficulty level was estimated in a separate study, with a comparable sample of N = 112 elderly adults. Future research is suggested to examine whether intellectual reserve extends to near-maximum levels of performance.},
  language  = {en}
}
@article{LindenbergerKlieglBaltes1992,
  author    = {Lindenberger, Ulman and Kliegl, Reinhold and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {Professional expertise does not eliminate negative age differences in imagery-based memory performance during adulthood},
  year      = {1992},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesKlieglDittmannKohli1988,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold and Dittmann-Kohli, Freya},
  title     = {On the locus of training gains in research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence in old age},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40288},
  year      = {1988},
  abstract  = {Cognitive training research has shown that many older adults have a substantial reserve capacity in fluid intelligence. Little is known, however, about the locus of plasticity. Two studies were conducted to examine whether training gains in fluid abilities are critically dependent on experimenter-guided training and/or whether older adults can achieve similar improvements by themselves on the basis of cognitive skills already available in their repertoire. Several comparisons were made: (a) between test performances after trainer-guided training in ability-specific cognitive skills and after self-guided retest practice (without feedback), (b) between performances under speeded and power conditions of assessment, (c) between performances on easy and difficult items, and (d) between the relative numbers of correct and wrong answers. Results suggest that a large share of the training improvement shown by the elderly can plausibly be explained as the result of the activation and practice of cognitive skills already available in their repertoire. The results also have implications for educational practice, pointing to the appropriateness of strategies of self-directed learning for many elderly adults.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{KlieglSmithBaltes1990,
  author    = {Kliegl, Reinhold and Smith, Jacqui and Baltes, Paul B.},
  title     = {On the locus and process of magnification of age differences during mnemonic training},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-40336},
  year      = {1990},
  abstract  = {The focus of this study was on developmental reserve capacity in old age as revealed by testing-thelimits. We examined (a) the time course of training-related magnification of age differences in serial word recall and (b) predictability of training gains by pretest individual differences in cognitive abilities. In 20 sessions, young (n = 18) and old (n = 19) adults were taught to recall lists of 30 words using the Method of Loci. Age differences were magnified early in practice at long presentation times (20 s and 15 s per word) and later at 5 s per word. Regression of posttraining scores on various pretraining abilities revealed significant effects of digit symbol substitution. Also, consistent with the assumption of age-related decline in developmental reserve capacity, the unique variance in serial word recall associated with age group became more salient as the training unfolded.},
  language  = {en}
}
@misc{BaltesKliegl1986,
  author    = {Baltes, Paul B. and Kliegl, Reinhold},
  title     = {On the dynamics between growth and decline in the aging of intelligence and memory},
  url       = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-41116},
  year      = {1986},
  abstract  = {Content: - Different Intellectual Abilities Age Differently - Cultural Change and Interindividual Variability in Aging - Cognitive Intervention Research on Plasticity in Old Age * Psychological Evidence * Brain-Physiological Evidence - Age Differences and Testing-the-Limits - Conclusions - Summary},
  language  = {en}
}